infinitesphere

cosplay accessories

2010-01-15T12:51:00.003+09:00

cosplay accessories

costume bleach

2009-12-17T16:47:00.002+09:00

costume bleach

final fantasy

2009-12-03T15:04:00.002+09:00

final fantasy

Japanese comic heroes come to life at Cosplay

2009-11-24T12:27:00.001+09:00

Japanese comic heroes come to life at Cosplay
PRINCESSES in flowing ballgowns, pilots of futuristic vessels and gigantic robots competed

on a level playing field at the national Cosplay championship at the weekend.

The grand final of the "costume play" event, held in an Albert Park hotel, brought together

Australia's most fervent supporters of Japanese comics and cartoons, better known as manga

and anime. Rather than just read or watch, people like Adelaide's Jenita Naipal spend

hundreds of hours making costumes of their favourite characters and then parading about in

them.

"I've had 3½ months to make it - that's a short time in the costuming world," the 24-year-

old said, struggling out of her robot suit from Laputa: Castle in the Sky.

"The arms are 190 centimetres, the head would be another 30 centimetres on top of that. I'm

five-foot-one-and-a-half [155 centimetres] so I'm walking with my hands above my head … I

was dying in there."

The fifth-placed Naipal won products from anime distributor Madman, which put on the event.

"I can definitely improve," she added.

Melbourne's Nicole Collis, 21, has just finished a digital arts course at RMIT, but her life

has been "full-time costume pandemonium" since then. The competition's runner-up is widely

known as Siera, her pen-name on internet forums, and she portrayed Rue from Princess Tutu, a

manga with a similar story to Swan Lake.

"I love the performance, being in character, it's a unique and creative way to express

yourself," she said, twirling in her pink and burgundy ball gown.

Her parents and friends were not particularly surprised by her hobby, she said. "They think

I'm a bit more than just crazy."

The competition's winner, Christie Lee of Sydney, was overjoyed with her prize: a trip to

Japan to attend next year's Tokyo Anime Fair.

"It hasn't really sunk in yet,'' she said.

In two outfits - a blue Victorian dress and a tight red number - the 21-year-old explained

how her favourite series was like a "twisted version" of Lewis Carroll's Alice in

Wonderland.

"I did a character named Alice from Pandora Hearts. Pretty much a girl who has a super power

and turns into a demon killer bunny," she explained, casually.

The surfing story

SURFING has taken seven-time world champion Layne Beachley around the world, but she never

thought she would end up in an exhibition.

A new collection celebrating the sport opened at the National Sports Museum at the MCG

yesterday, thrilling the wave-loving Beachley.

"I know, I was in a surfing museum before I was dead," she said, laughing.

"Never in my wildest dreams did I think that boards would be hanging up at the MCG."

Collections manager Jed Smith said The Long Ride: 100 Years of Australian Surfing traversed

the origins of the sport through to the professional circuit of today. The exhibition

stretches back to 1909 when Manly's Tommy Walker brought a board from Hawaii and started to

ride. (It was previously held that Hawaiian champion Duke Kahanamoku was the first to ride

local waves in the 1920s.)

Until interest spiked in the 1970s and '80s, surfing was amateur and recreational, he said.

"So to get hold of boards to see the evolution, it's quite extraordinary."

Beachley said her first boards were thick, wide and long. "We'd be encouraged to learn on

'moving sidewalks'," she said. "Now the craftsmanship is just amazing, and it's great to see

it be honoured and admired and appreciated."

The exhibition runs until the end of February.

Center to develop solar cities in Himachal

2009-08-26T16:15:00.000+09:00

"The central government has agreed in principle to develop Shimla and Hamirpur towns as solar cities and the Dr.Y.S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry at Nauni in Solan district and the National Institute of Technology at Hamirpur as energy parks under the Ministry of New Renewable Energy's programmes," said the statement.

"The union ministry would also extend assistance to the state government to execute mini and micro hydroelectric projects in the state."

Himachal Pradesh has identified 23,185 MW hydro potential in the state. The state has a target to commission 1,075 MW capacity projects by 2014.

As many as 292 micro projects up to 5 MW have been allotted during the past one year of which 273 projects, with aggregate capacity of 456 MW, have been allotted to those entrepreneurs who are natives of the state.

高バイト

2009-06-11T17:02:00.000+09:00

発見日: 2003 年 8 月 19 日

更新日: 2007 年 2 月 13 日 12:12:21 PM

別名: WORM_MSBLAST.E [Trend], W32/Lovsan.worm.d [McAfee], W32/Blaster-D [Sophos], Win32.Poza.D [CA]

種別: ワーム

感染サイズ: 11,776 バイト

影響を受けるシステム: Windows 2000, Windows XP

W32.Blaster.D.Worm が実行されると、次のことを行います。

コンピューターがすでに感染していないか、およびこのワームが実行中でないかをチェックします。その場合は、このワームはそのコンピューターに 2 度目に感染することはしません。
次のレジストリキーへ

HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\Runon

次の値を追加します。

" Nonton Antivirus"="mspatch.exe"

これにより、Windows が起動された時にこのワームが実行されるようにします。
IP アドレスを収集し、そのアドレスを持つコンピューターへの感染を試みます。次のアルゴリズムに従って、IP アドレスが生成されます。
- 時間のうち 40% では、生成される IP アドレスは A.B.C.0 のフォームになります。ここで、A と B は、感染したコンピューターの IP アドレスの最初の 2 パーツと同じになります。
  
  C も感染したシステムの IP アドレスの 3 番目のパーツによって算出されますが、この 40% の時間では、このワームは C が 20 より大きな数字でないかをチェックします。 20 よりも大きな数字である場合は、20 より小さいランダムな値が C から差し引かれます。この IP アドレスが算出されると、ワームはこの IP アドレス A.B.C.0 を持つコンピューターを探して悪用しようとします。
  
  次にこのワームは、この IP アドレスの 0 部分を 1 増分して、これが 254 に達するまで、新しい IP アドレスに基づいて他のコンピューターを探して悪用しようとします。
- 時間のうち約 60% の確率では、生成される IP アドレスは全くランダムなものとなります。
DCOM RPC における脆弱性を悪用して、TCP ポート 135 でデータを送信する可能性があります。このワームは、2 タイプのデータのうちいずれかを、Windows XP または Windows 2000 のいずれかを悪用するために送信します。

時間のうち 80% の確率で、Windows XP のデータが送信され、20% の確率で Windows 2000 のデータが送信されます。
注意:
- ローカルサブネットは、ポート 135 のリクエストで飽和状態になります。
- W32.Blaster.D.Worm は Windows NT や Windows サーバー 2003 へは拡散はできませんが、これらのオペレーティングシステムを実行しているパッチ未適用のコンピューターは、ワームによるこれらの悪用の試みの結果としてクラッシュする可能性があります。しかし、このワームは、これらのオペレーティングシステムを実行しているコンピューター上へ手動で置かれて実行されると、実行および拡散が可能になります。
- ワームが悪用するデータをどのように構成するかはランダムな性質であるため、これにより、正しくないデータを受信した場合に RPC サービスがクラッシュする可能性があります。これは、正しくないデータの結果としてエラーを生成し、svchost.exe として表されることがあります。
- RPC サービスがクラッシュした場合、Windows XP および Windows サーバー 2003 でのデフォルトでの動作は、コンピューターを再起動することです。この機能を無効にするには、後述の「駆除手順」セクションのステップ 1 を参照してください。
Cmd.exe を使用して TCP ポート 4444 で待機する隠れたリモートシェルプロセスを作成し、攻撃者が感染したシステム上でリモートコマンドを発行できるようにします。
UDP ポート 69 で待機します。ワームは、DCOM RPC を悪用して接続できたコンピューターからリクエストを受信すると、mspatch.exe をそのコンピューターへ送信し、そのワームを実行するように指示します。
現在の日付が 1 月から 8 月までの 16 日から月の終わりまでの日である場合、または現在の月が 9 月から 12 月までの月である場合には、ワームは Windows Update でサービス拒否攻撃 (DoS) の実行を試みます。しかし、このサービス拒否攻撃 (DoS) が成功するのは、次のいずれかの条件に該当する場合のみとなります。
- ワームが、感染していたかまたはペイロード期間中に再起動されたかのいずれかの Windows XP コンピューター上で実行された場合
- ワームが、ペイロード期間中に感染しかつ感染してから再起動されていない Windows 2000 コンピューター上で実行された場合
- ワームが、感染してからペイロード期間中に再起動されており、現在ログインしているユーザーが管理者である Windows 2000 コンピューター上で実行された場合
このサービス拒否攻撃 (DoS) のトラフィックには、次の特徴があります。
- windowsupdate.com のポート 80 での SYN フラッドである。
- 1 秒ごとに 50 HTTP パケットの送信を試みる。
- 各パケット長は 40 バイトである。
- ワームが、windowsupdate.com の DNS エントリを見付けられなかった場合は、宛先アドレス 255.255.255.255 を使用する。

変更された TCP および IP ヘッダーの特徴のうちいくつかは次のとおりです。

IP identification = 256
Time to Live = 128
ソース IP アドレス = a.b.x.y ここで、a.b はホスト ip からのものであり、x.y はランダム。場合によっては、a.b がランダム。
宛先 IP アドレス = "windowsupdate.com" の dns レゾリューション
TCP ソースポートが 1000 から 1999 までの間
TCP 宛先ポート = 80
TCP シーケンスナンバーが常に、0 へ設定された 2 つの低バイトと、ランダムな 2 つの高バイトを保持している。
TCP Window サイズ = 16384

このワームには次のテキストが含まれており、これは決して表示されません。

アニメ動画

2009-05-12T11:08:00.000+09:00

【お知らせ】
旧サイト:「無料動画アニメ倉庫」より移転いたしました。
これからも徐々に無料アニメリストを増やしていく予定です。
何かご要望等あればご連絡いただければと思います。
（リクエスト専用ページ）

また、無料音楽PV動画につきましては
無料PV視聴！音楽動画倉庫.comを開設いたしましたので、
こちらもチェックしていただけるとありがたいです。
9月2日、サイトをプチリニューアル致しました。
今後とも、当サイトをどうぞよろしくお願い申し上げます。

【ご利用方法について】
当サイトで紹介しているアニメはすべて無料で視聴することができます。
アニメのタイトルをクリックすると動画共有サイトへのリンクが貼ってありますので、そちらで動画を視聴してください。
リンク先の動画がスムーズに視聴できない場合は、一時停止しゲージを進めてから再生しなおしてみてください。
またなるべく混み合う時間を避けてご利用すると良いかもしれません。
その他リンク切れ等ございましたら、コメントまたはメールにてお知らせください。

【当サイト及び免責事項について】
・当サイトでは「YouTube」「ニコニコ動画」「Daum」「パンドラ」等の動画共有サイトに、公開されている無料で視聴できるテレビアニメをまとめて紹介しております。
・リンクされている動画について何か問題等ございましたら「YouTube」などの動画共有サイトへお問合わせ願います。
・当サイトは動画を見やすいようにリスト化しているだけであり、著作権の侵害を助長しているわけではありません。リンク先の動画のご利用については各個人の責任でお願いします。
・当サイトは動画共有サイトへのアップロード行為やそれを推奨、援助することは一切行っていません。
・また各記事の内容については、「公式サイト」及び「Wikipedia」等から引用しておりその著作権は引用元にあります。
・もし当サイトにて著作権等の問題がありましたら、早急に該当箇所の対処を致しますので、コメントもしくはメールにてお知らせ願います。
・最後にこのサイトを通じてより多くのアニメ動画を知ってもらいビデオ・DVDまたはグッズ等の販売促進につながればと考えております。

それでは、ごゆっくりと無料アニメをお楽しみ下さい。

サルベージ

2009-04-28T17:40:00.000+09:00

サルベージは遺構と呼ばれる4つのエリアを探索、敵を倒してお宝をゲットするのが目的。
- 加工すれば強力な装備となる防具がお宝として出る。
- ミシックウェポン入手用のアレキサンドライトも出る。
遺構に侵入すると、それまでにかかっていたアビリティ・強化魔法が全て消える。
- 遺構内部でログアウト＞再度ログインしても、アビリティ・強化魔法が全て消える。
- サンクション・食事・エンチャント:リレイズの効果は消えない。
- 獣使いの汁ペット・からくり士のオートマトンは遺構侵入時に消えるが、竜騎士の飛竜は消えない。
遺構内部には侵入者に20種類の制限を与える「アルザダールパトス」や、遺構独自の敵が待ち構えている。
- 遺構内部では敵を倒してもギルや経験値を入手できない。
- 遺構内部ではトラクタ可能。
遺構内部は複数のルートに分かれており、一つのルートを選択すると他ルートがすべてロックされる。
後戻りはできないので、目的別のルート選択が要求される。
遺構内の各エリアは転送装置で繋がれている。
- 転送装置を起動させるとメンバー全員が次のエリアへと転送される。
- 転送後メンバー全員のHP/MPが全快する。しかし状態異常は回復しない。
遺構内部にいる敵を倒すとアルザダールパトスを解除できるインビュードアイテムを入手できる。
- インビュードアイテムは状況に応じて適切に分配、使用することが要求される。
- スタート地点にある箱からインビュードアイテムが10個入手できるようになり、攻略が楽になった。
遺構内部にはテンポラリアイテムを入手できる箱が設置されている。うまく使えば進行が楽になる。
サルベージはアサルトのシステムを利用している。
- 他アライアンスの占有状況に影響を受けず、いつでも挑戦できる。
- 占有時間は100分。延長はない。
- アサルトで潜在能力を発揮する武器防具はサルベージにおいてもその潜在能力を発揮する。

藤木悠

2009-04-02T11:47:00.000+09:00

藤木悠（ふじきゆう、1931年3月2日 - 2005年12月19日）は日本の俳優。東京都品川区（旧・東京府荏原郡荏原町）出身の大阪府大阪市西成区育ち。本名は鈴木悠蔵（すずき　ゆうぞう）。血液型はA型。

大阪府立鳳高等学校卒業→同志社大学文学部卒業。大学在学中の1951年、全日本フェンシング選手権大会男子エペ個人優勝。そのため映画『リオの若大将』では出演すると共にフェンシングシーンの監修もおこなった。1954年、東宝第6期ニューフェイスに合格。同年、『摩子恐るべし』（鈴木英夫監督）で本格デビュー。同期に俳優の岡田眞澄・宝田明・佐原健二がいる。以後黒澤明監督作品、特撮など東宝作品の脇役として活躍する。

テレビドラマでは青春学園シリーズや、『アイフル大作戦』『バーディー大作戦』『Gメン'75』などにレギュラー出演した。特に『アイフル大作戦』から『Gメン'75』にかけては、叩き上げのベテラン刑事役を数年間に渡って演じたことで、視聴者に強烈な印象を残した。

1980年代にフジテレビの火曜ワイドスペシャルで放送された『タケちゃんの思わず笑ってしまいました』では、『太陽にほえろ!』などの刑事ドラマをパロディー化した「ニンニク刑事」役で出演したこともあった。

『Gメン'75』に出演していた頃、「少し風邪を引いただけで弱気になって、死ぬ、死ぬと連呼する」と雑誌にエピソードを紹介されるほどだった一方で、仕事が好調だったこともあって毎日暴飲暴食と痛飲を繰り返し、「オレは不死身悠だ!」などと自分の名を洒落て豪語していた（「あの頃はころころに肥っちゃってたんだよね」と晩年に述懐している）。が、それがたたり、のちに糖尿病を発症、末梢神経障害で足の指先を少しではあるが、切除することとなった。以後、妻の協力もあり、健康に気をつけ、自らの体験談から糖尿病に対する警告を促していた。

高島忠夫とは映画『サラリーマン弥次喜多道中』（1961年）ほか多くの映画でコンビを組み出演し、親友だった。身長180cmと、見た目よりも長身である。

2005年12月19日、肺血栓塞栓症による多臓器不全により、74歳で死去。この年公開された映画『北の零年』が遺作となった。

セロビアーゼ

2009-03-26T15:47:00.000+09:00

β-グルコシダーゼ(β-glucosidase; EC 3.2.1.21)は糖のβ-グリコシド結合を加水分解する反応を触媒する酵素。β‐D‐グルコシドグルコヒドロラーゼ，アミグダーゼとも呼ばれる[1]。また、β-グリコシド結合を持つ代表的な糖であるセロビオースやゲンチオビオースから、しばしばセロビアーゼ、ゲンチオビアーゼとも呼ばれる。

微生物，高等植物，動物の肝臓・腎臓・小腸粘膜，カタツムリ消化液などに広く分布するが、基質特異性は期限によって異なる[1]。

α-グルコシダーゼ同様、動植物通じて広く存在し、異化代謝に関わっている。アグリコンと糖の結合も分解するが、アグリコンの構造によっては、基質が阻害剤となる場合もある。セルロースの分解に関連する酵素で、β-グルコシダーゼの活性が低いとセロビオースが蓄積し、セルロースの働きを阻害する場合がある。ただし、一般的にはセルラーゼの活性の方が低い。

β-グルコシダーゼの先天性欠損症はゴーシェ病を引き起こす[1]。

Subway worker Richard Shannon sacked for filming himself stuffing lettuce up his nose

2009-03-13T16:24:00.000+09:00

A SUBWAY sandwich bar worker was sacked after a video was posted on YouTube of him stuffing lettuce leaves up his nose, before putting them back in the serving tray.

Briton Richard Shannon, who also put salad leaves in his mouth and spat them out, was arrested after a "disgusted" customer recognised the 22-year-old on the internet.

The woman went to the global chain's outlet in Brownhills, West Midlands, and hurled a chair at him. Shannon admitted contaminating or interfering with goods with intent to cause economic loss, alarm or injury but claimed the incident, filmed by a friend on a mobile phone, was a prank and the lettuce had been discarded.

It is the latest incident in which fast-food chain employees have been caught out on film after teenage girls working at a KFC in the US were punished after taking a bath in the mammoth kitchen sink - and a male Hungry Jack's worker was sacked for the same offence.

Shannon was sentenced to 300 hours community service.

2008-05-02T02:13:00.001+09:00

Original Dixieland Jass Band (after mid-1917 spelling changed to Jazz) was a New Orleans band which, in 1917, was the first ever to make a jazz recording. The first jazz band to achieve widespread prominence, the Original Dixieland Jass Band is often known by the initials O.D.J.B. The group made the first recordings of many jazz standards, probably the most famous being "Tiger Rag."
The band consisted of five musicians who had previously played in the Papa Jack Laine bands, a diverse and racially integrated collection of musicians who played for parades, dances, and advertising in New Orleans. The actual band ODJB was not racially integrated at all, consisting of all-white members.
The O.D.J.B. were billed as the "Creators of Jazz." Trumpeter Nick LaRocca convinced himself, in his old age, that this was literally true, but there is no evidence from the interviews and writings of the other O.D.J.B. members that the rest of the band ever considered it anything more than a snappy advertising slogan.

Origins of the Original Dixieland Jazz Band
While a couple of other New Orleans bands had passed through New York City slightly earlier, they were part of vaudeville acts. The O.D.J.B., on the other hand, played for dancing and were hence the first "jass" band to get a following of fans in New York, and then record at a time when the USA's recording industry was almost entirely centered in New York and New Jersey.
Shortly after arriving in New York they were offered a chance per a letter dated January 29, 1917 to audition for the Columbia Graphaphone Company which took place on Wednesday, January 31, 1917. Nothing came of this audition (though Columbia would invite them back to record after their success with Victor).
The band then recorded two sides ("Livery Stable Blues" and "Dixie Jass Band One Step") on February 26, 1917 for the Victor Talking Machine Company. The record with these titles came out the following month. The ODJB's records, first marketed simply as a novelty, were a surprise hit, and gave many Americans their first taste of jazz.

2008-04-30T23:58:00.001+09:00

Livia Drusilla, after 14 AD called Livia Augusta (Classical Latin: LIVIA•DRVSILLA, later LIVIA•AVGVSTA) (58 BC-AD 29) was the wife of Caesar Augustus (also known as Octavian) and the most powerful woman in the early Roman Empire, acting several times as regent and being Augustus' faithful advisor. She was also mother to Emperor Tiberius and Drusus, grandmother to Germanicus and Claudius, great-grandmother to Caligula and Agrippina the younger and great-great-grandmother to Nero. She was deified by Claudius who acknowledged her title of Augusta.

Life
She was born on 30 January 58 BC as the daughter of Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus by his wife Aufidia, who was a daughter of Aufidius Lurco, a Roman magistrate from an Italic town. The diminutive Drusilla often found in her name suggests that she was a second daughter.
In 42 BC, her father married her to Tiberius Claudius Nero, her cousin of patrician status who was fighting with him on the side of Julius Caesar's assassins against Octavian. Her father committed suicide in the Battle of Philippi, along with Gaius Cassius Longinus and Marcus Junius Brutus, but her husband continued fighting against Octavian, now on behalf of Mark Antony and his brother. In 40 BC, the family was forced to flee Italy in order to avoid Octavian's proscriptions, and joined with Sextus Pompeius in Sicilia, later moving on to Greece.

Birth and first marriage
A general amnesty was announced, and Livia returned to Rome, where she was personally introduced to Octavian in 39 BC. At this time, Livia already had a son, the future emperor Tiberius, and was pregnant with the second (Drusus the Elder). Legend said that Octavian fell immediately in love with her, despite the fact that he was still married to Scribonia. Octavian divorced Scribonia in 39 BC, on the very day that she gave birth to his daughter Julia the Elder ( Dio Cassius 48.34.3). Seemingly around that time, when Livia was six months pregnant, Tiberius Claudius Nero was persuaded or forced by Octavian to divorce Livia. On 14 January, the child was born. Octavian and Livia married on 17 January, waiving the traditional waiting period. Tiberius Claudius Nero was present at the wedding, giving her in marriage "just as a father would" (Dio Cassius 48.44.1-3). The importance of the patrician Claudii to Octavian's cause, and the political survival of the Claudii Nerones are probably more rational explanations for the tempestuous union. Nevertheless, Livia and Octavian remained married for the next 51 years, despite the fact that they had no children apart from a single miscarriage. She always enjoyed the status of privileged counselor to her husband, petitioning him on the behalf of others and influencing his policies.

Marriage to Octavian
After Mark Antony's suicide following the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, Octavian met no opposition to his increasing power, eventually becoming Roman Emperor as Caesar Augustus always with Livia by his side. Together, they formed the role model for Roman households. Despite his wealth and power, Augustus and his family continued to live modestly in their house on the Palatine Hill. Livia would set the pattern for the noble Roman matrona. She wore neither excessive jewelry nor pretentious costumes, she took care of the household and her husband (often making his clothes herself), and she paid no attention to his notorious womanising, always faithful and dedicated.
In 35 BC Octavian gave Livia the unprecedented honour of ruling her own finances and dedicated a public statue to her. She had her own circle of clients and pushed many protégés into political offices, including Roman Emperor Galba and Emperor Otho's grandfather.
With Augustus being the father of only one daughter (Julia the Elder by Scribonia), Livia revealed herself to be an ambitious mother and soon started to push her own sons, Tiberius and Drusus, into power. Drusus was a trusted general and married Augustus's favourite niece, Antonia Minor. Tiberius married Julia the Elder (daughter of Augustus) in 11 BC and was ultimately adopted by his stepfather in AD 4 and nominated heir to the empire.
Rumor had it that when Marcellus, nephew of Augustus, died in 23, it was no natural death, and that Livia was behind it (Dio Cassius 55.33.4). One by one, all the sons of Julia the Elder by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa died: first Lucius and then Gaius, whom Augustus had adopted as his sons, intending them to be his successors. Finally Agrippa Postumus, Julia's one remaining son and also adopted as Augustus' son, was also incarcerated and finally killed. Tacitus charges that Livia was not altogether innocent of these deaths (esp. Annals 1.3; 1.6), and Dio Cassius also mentions such rumours (53.33.4, 55.10A, 55.32; 57.3.6), but not even the gossipmonger Suetonius, who had access to official documents, repeats them. Most modern historical accounts of Livia's life discount the idea. Even less plausible is the rumour mentioned by Tacitus (Annals 1.5) and Dio Cassius (55.22.2; 56.30) that Livia brought about Augustus' death (Dio mentions poisoned figs).

Livia, Roman empress
Augustus died in 14, being deified by the senate shortly afterwards. In his will, he left one third of his property to Livia, and the other two thirds to the successor Tiberius. In the will, he also adopted her into the Julian family, thus turning her into a patrician, and granted her the honorific title of Augusta. These dispositions permitted her to maintain her status and power after his death, under the name of Julia Augusta.
For some time, Livia and her son Tiberius, the new Emperor, appeared to get along with each other. Speaking against her became treason in 20, and in 24 he granted his mother a theatre seat among the Vestal Virgins. Livia exercised unofficial but very real power in Rome, with a man convicted of treason let go at her request. Eventually, Tiberius became resentful of his mother's political status, particularly against the idea that it was she who had given him the throne. At the beginning of the reign he vetoed the unprecedented title Mater Patriae ("Mother of the Fatherland") that the Senate wanted to bestow upon her, in the same manner in which Augustus and before him Julius Caesar and Cicero had been named Pater Patriae ("Father of the Fatherland"). (Tiberius also consistently refused the title of Pater Patriae for himself.)
The historians Tacitus and Dio Cassius depict an overweening, even domineering dowager, ready to interfere in Tiberius' decisions, the most notable instances being the case of Urgulania, a woman who correctly assumed that her friendship with the empress placed her above the law (Dio Cassius 57.12, Tacitus, Annals 2.34), and Plancina, suspected of murdering Germanicus and saved at Livia's entreaty (Annals 3.17). A notice from AD 22 records that Julia Augusta dedicated a statue to Augustus in the centre of Rome, placing her own name even before that of Tiberius.
Ancient historians give as a reason for Tiberius' retirement to Capri his inability to endure her any longer (Annals 4.57, Dio Cassius 57.12.6). Until AD 22 there had, according to Tacitus, been "a genuine harmony between mother and son, or a hatred well concealed" (Annals 3.64); Dio tells us that at the time of his accession already Tiberius heartily loathed her (57.3.3). In 22 she had fallen ill, and Tiberius had hastened back to Rome in order to be with her (Annals 3.64). But in 29 when she finally fell ill and died, he remained on Capri, pleading pressure of work and sending Caligula to deliver the funeral oration (Annals 5.1, Dio 58.2). Suetonius (Vita Tiberii 51) adds the macabre detail that "when she died... after a delay of many days, during which he held out hope of his coming, she was at last buried because the condition of the corpse made it necessary...". Divine honours he also vetoed, as if he took a perverse pleasure in depriving her of her secret aspirations. Later he vetoed all the honours the Senate had granted her after her death and canceled the fulfillment of her will.
It would be another 13 years in the year 42, under the reign of her grandson Claudius, before all her honours would be restored and her deification finally completed. Named Diva Augusta (The Divine Augusta), she received an elephant-drawn chariot to convey her image to all public games, a statue of her was set up in the temple of Augustus along with her husbands, races were held in her honour, and women were to name her in their oaths.
Her Villa ad Gallinas Albas north of Rome is currently being excavated: its famous frescos of feigned garden views may be seen at Museo Nazionale Romano#Palazzo Massimo [1]. One of the most famous statues of Augustus - the Prima Porta Augustus - came from the grounds of the villa.

Life after Augustus
While reporting various unsavoury hearsay, the ancient sources generally portray Livia (Julia Augusta) as a woman of proud and queenly attributes, faithful to her imperial husband, for whom she was a worthy consort, forever poised and dignified. With consummate skill she acted out the roles of consort, mother, widow and dowager. Dio (58.2.5) records two of her utterances: "Once, when some naked men met her and were to be put to death in consequence, she saved their lives by saying that to a chaste woman such men are in no way different from statues. When someone asked her how she had obtained such a commanding influence over Augustus, she answered that it was by being scrupulously chaste herself, doing gladly whatever pleased him, not meddling with any of his affairs, and, in particular, by pretending neither to hear or nor to notice the favourites of his passion."
With time, however, and widowhood, a haughtiness and an overt craving for power and the outward trappings of status came increasingly to the fore. Livia had always been a principal beneficiary of the climate of adulation that Augustus had done so much to create, and which Tiberius despised ("a strong contempt for honours", Tacitus, Annals 4.37). In AD 24, typically, whenever she attended the theatre, a seat among the Vestals was reserved for her (Annals 4.16), and this may have been intended more as an honour for the Vestals than for her (cf. Ovid, Tristia, 4.2.13f, Epist.Ex Ponto 4.13.29f).
Livia played a vital role in the formation of her children Tiberius and Drusus. Attention focuses on her part in the divorce of her first husband, father of Tiberius, in 39/38 BC. It would be interesting to know her role in this, as well as in Tiberius' divorce of Vipsania in 12 BC at Augustus' insistence: whether it was merely neutral or passive, or whether she actively colluded in Caesar's wishes. The first divorce left Tiberius a fosterchild at the house of Octavian; the second left Tiberius with a lasting emotional scar, since he had been forced to abandon the woman he loved for dynastic considerations. Ancient testimonies are lacking, but it may well be that Tiberius' deep-seated antipathy towards Livia is rooted in these two events.

Livia in literature and popular culture
In Tacitus' The Annals of Imperial Rome, Livia is depicted as having great influence, to the extent where she "had the aged Augustus firmly under control — so much so that he exiled his only surviving grandson to the island of Planasia".
Livia's image appears in ancient visual media such as coins and portraits. She was the first woman to appear on provincial coins in 16 BC and her portrait images can be chronologically identified partially from the progression of her hair designs, which represented more than keeping up with the fashions of the time as her depiction with such contemporary details translated into a political statement of representing the ideal Roman woman. Livia's image evolves with different styles of portraiture that trace her effect on imperial propaganda that helped bridge the gap between her role as wife to the emperor Augustus, to mother of the emperor Tiberius. Becoming more than the "beautiful woman" she is described as in ancient texts, Livia serves as a public image for the idealization of Roman feminine qualities, a motherly figure, and eventually a goddess like representation that alludes to her virtue. Livia's power in symbolizing the renewal of the Republic with the female virtues Pietas and Concordia in public displays had a dramatic affect on the visual representation of future imperial women as ideal, honorable mothers and wives of Rome.

Ancient
In the popular fictional work I, Claudius by Robert Graves, Livia is portrayed as a thoroughly wicked, scheming political mastermind. Devoted to bringing Tiberius to power and then maintaining him there, she is involved in nearly every death or disgrace in the Julio-Claudian family up to the time of her death. In the 1976 BBC television series based on the book, Livia was played by Siân Phillips.
Livia is also dramatized in the HBO/BBC series Rome. Introduced in the 2007 episode A Necessary Fiction, Livia (Alice Henley) soon catches the eye of young Octavian, who has never been married or fathered any children. Historically, of course, Octavian had already been married to and divorced Clodia Pulchra by this time, and was married to a pregnant Scribonia. Rome does acknowledge the existence of Livia's child, Tiberius Nero, by her first husband, but not that she was pregnant with Nero Claudius Drusus when she met Octavian.
Livia appears in Neil Gaiman's comic "Distant Mirrors - August" collected in The Sandman: Fables and Reflections.
In John Maddox Roberts's short story "The King of Sacrifices," set in his SPQR series, Livia hires Decius Metellus to investigate the murder of one of Julia's lovers.

Notes

Julio-Claudian family tree

2008-04-30T00:39:00.001+09:00

Stanisław Lem (pronunciation (help·info), September 12, 1921 – March 27, 2006) was a Polish science fiction, philosophical and satirical writer. His books have been translated into 41 languages and have sold over 27 million copies..
His works explore philosophical themes; speculation on technology, the nature of intelligence, the impossibility of mutual communication and understanding, despair about human limitations and humankind's place in the universe. They are sometimes presented as fiction, to avoid both trappings of academic life and limitations of readership and scientific style, but others are in the form of essays or philosophical books. Translations of his works are difficult; Michael Kandel's translations into English have generally been praised as capturing the spirit of the original.

Biography

1957 - City of Kraków's Prize in Literature (Nagroda Literacka miasta Krakowa)
1965 - Prize of the Minister of Culture and Art, 2nd Level (Nagroda Ministra Kultury i Sztuki II stopnia)
1973 - Prize of the Minister of Foreign Affairs for popularization of Polish culture abroad (nagroda Ministra Spraw Zagranicznych za popularyzację polskiej kultury za granicą)
1972 - member of commission "Polska 2000" of the Polish Academy of Sciences
1973 - Prize of the Minister of Culture and Art (nagroda literacka Ministra Kultury i Sztuki) and honorary member of the Science Fiction Writers of America
1976 - State's Award 1st Level in the area of literature (Nagroda Państwowa I stopnia w dziedzinie literatury)
1981 - Doctor honoris causa honorary degree from the Wrocław Polytechnic
1985 - State's Award from Austria for contribution to European culture
1991 - Franz Kafka's State's Award from Austria in the area of literature
1994 - member of the Polish Academy of Learning
1996 - recipient of the Order of the White Eagle
1997 - honorary citizen of Kraków
1998 - Doctor honoris causa: University of Opole, Lwów University, Jagiellonian University
2003 - Doctor honoris causa of the University of Bielefeld Honors
Lem was awarded an honorary membership in the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America (SFWA) in 1973 despite being technically ineligible. SFWA Honorary membership is given to people who do not meet the criteria for joining the regular membership but who would be welcomed as members. Lem, however, never had a high opinion of American science-fiction, describing it as ill thought-out, poorly written, and interested more in making money than in ideas or new literary forms.

SFWA controversy
Several specific themes recur in all his works, however Lem's fiction is often divided into two major groups. Solaris, twice adapted into a movie, is set on an isolated research station hovering above the planet Solaris, and is a deeply philosophical work about contact with a completely alien lifeform — a planet-wide sentient ocean. Głos Pana (His Master's Voice) is another classic of traditional science fiction themes. Also very philosophical - much more so than Solaris - it tells the story of the scientists effort to decode, translate and understand an Extraterrestrial transmission, critically approaching humanity's intelligence and intentions in deciphering and truly comprehending a message from outer space. Lem's third great book is The Cyberiad. Subtitled Fables for the Cybernetic Age, it is a collection of comic tales about two intelligent robots who travel about the galaxy solving engineering problems; but a deeper reading reveals a wealth of profound insights into the human condition.

Influence

Works

Człowiek z Marsa (1946, only in a magazine in sequels) - The Man from Mars. Lem's earliest novel of which he often said that 'it should be forgotten'; however he didn't prevent later republications
Szpital przemienienia (1948) - Novella, published in book form in 1955 as Czas nieutracony: Szpital przemienienia. Non-SF book about a doctor working in a Polish asylum. Translated into English by William Brand as Hospital of the Transfiguration (1988). Released as a film in 1979.
Astronauci (Astronauts, 1951) - juvenile science fiction novel. In early 21st century, it is discovered that Tunguska meteorite was a crash of a reconnaissance ship from Venus, bound to invade the Earth. A spaceship sent to investigate finds that Venusians killed themselves in atomic war first. Released as a film in 1960.
Obłok Magellana (The Magellanic Cloud, 1955, untranslated into English)
Sezam (1955) - Linked collection of short fiction, dealing with time machines used to clean up Earth's history in order to be accepted into intergalactic society. Not translated into English.
Dzienniki gwiazdowe (1957, expanded until 1971) - Collection of short fiction dealing with the voyages of Ijon Tichy. Translated into English and expanded as The Star Diaries (1976, translated by Michael Kandel), later published in 2 volumes as Memoirs of a Space Traveller (1982, second volume translated by Joel Stern).
Inwazja z Aldebarana (1959) - Collection of science fiction stories. Translated into English as The Invasion from Aldebaran.
The Investigation (Śledztwo, 1959; trans. 1974) - philosophical mystery novel. Released as a film in 1979.
Eden (1959) - Science fiction novel; after crashing their spaceship on the planet Eden, the crew discovers it is populated with an unusual society. Translated into English by Marc E. Heine as Eden (1989).
Ksiega robotów (1961) - Released in the US as Mortal Engines (also contains The Hunt from Tales of Pirx the Pilot).
Return from the Stars (Powrót z gwiazd, 1961; trans. 1980) - SF novel. An astronaut returns to Earth after a 127 year mission.
Solaris (1961) - SF novel. The crew of a space station is strangely influenced by the living ocean as they attempt communication with it. Translated into English from the French translation by Joanna Kilmartin and Steve Cox (author) as Solaris (1970). Made into a Russian film in 1972, and as a US film in 2002.
Memoirs Found in a Bathtub (Pamiętnik znaleziony w wannie, 1961; trans. 1973) - Novel set in the distant future about a secret agent, whose mission is so secret that no one can tell him what it is.
The Invincible (Niezwyciężony, 1964; translated by Wendayne Ackerman from the German translation 1973) - SF novel. The crew of a space cruiser searches for a disappeared ship on the planet Regis III, discovering swarms of insect-like micromachines.
The Cyberiad (Cyberiada, 1967; transl. by Michael Kandel 1974) - collection of humorous stories about the exploits of Trurl and Klapaucius, "constructors" among robots. The stories of Douglas Adams have been compared to the Cyberiad. [1]
Głos pana (1968) - SF novel about the effort to translate an extraterrestrial radio transmission. Translated into English by Michael Kandel as His Master's Voice.
Ze wspomnień Ijona Tichego; The Futurological Congress (Kongres futurologiczny, 1971) - An Ijon Tichy short story, published in the collection Bezsenność.
Ze wspomnień Ijona Tichego; Professor A. Dońda (1971)
Doskonała próżnia (1971) - Collection of book reviews of nonexistent books. Translated into English by Michael Kandel as A Perfect Vacuum.
Opowieści o pilocie Pirxie (1973) - Collection of linked short fiction involving the career of Pirx. Translated into English in two volumes (Tales of Pirx the Pilot and More Tales of Pirx the Pilot)
Wielkość urojona (1973) - Collection of introductions to nonexistent books, as written by artificial intelligences. Translated into English as Imaginary Magnitude. Also includes Golem XIV, a lengthy essay/short story on the nature of intelligence delivered by eponymous US military computer. In the personality of Golem XIV, Lem with a great amount of humor describes an ideal of his own mind.
Katar (1975) - SF novel. A former US astronaut is sent to Italy to investigate a series of mysterious deaths. Translated into English as The Chain of Chance.
Golem XIV (1981) - Expansion of an essey/short story found in Wielkość urojona.
Wizja lokalna (1982) - Ijon Tichy novel about the planet Entia. Not translated into English.
Fiasco (Fiasko, 1986, trans. 1987) - SF novel concerning an expedition to communicate with an alien civilization that devolves into a major fiasco.
Biblioteka XXI wieku (1986) - Library of 21st Century includes Perfect Vacuum, Imaginary Magnitude and others
Peace on Earth (Pokój na Ziemi, 1987; transl. 1994) - Ijon Tichy novel. A callotomized Tichy returns to Earth, trying to reconstruct the events of his recent visit to the Moon.
Zagadka (The Riddle, 1996) - Short stories collection. Not translated into English.
Fantastyczny Lem (The fantastical Lem, 2001). Short stories collection. Not translated into English. Fiction

Dialogi (1957) - Non-fiction work of philosophy. Translated into English by Frank Prengel as Dialogs.
Wejście na orbitę (1962) - Not translated into English. Title translates as Going into Orbit.
Summa Technologiae (1964) - Philosophical essay. Partially translated into English.
Filozofia Przypadku (1968) - Nonfiction. Not translated into English. Title translates to Philosophy of Coincidence or The Philosophy of Chance.
Fantastyka i futurologia (1970) - Critiques on science fiction. Some parts were translated into English in the magazine SF Studies in 1973-1975, selected material was translated in the single volume Microworlds (New York, 1986).
Rozprawy i szkice (1974) - Nonfiction collection of essays on science, science fiction, and literature in general. Not translated into English. Title translates to Essays and drafts.
Wysoki zamek (1975) - Autobiography of Lem's childhood before World War II. Translated into English as Highcastle: A Remembrance.
Rozprawy i szkice (1975) - Essays and sketches. Not translated into English.
Lube Czasy (1995) - Not translated into English. Title translates to Pleasant Times.
Dziury w całym (1995) - Not translated into English. Title translates to Looking for Problems.
Tajemnica chińskiego pokoju (1996) - Collection of essays on the impact of technology on everyday life. Not translated into English. Title translates to Mystery of the Chinese Room.
Sex Wars (1996) - Not translated into English.
Bomba megabitowa (1999) - Collection of essays about the potential downside of technology, including terrorism and artificial intelligence. Not translated into English. Title translates to The Megabit Bomb.
Świat na krawędzi (2000) - The World at the Edge. Interviews with Lem.
Okamgnienie (2000) - Collection of essays on technological progress since the publication of Summa Technologiae. Not translated into English. Title translates to A Blink of an Eye.
Tako rzecze Lem (And Lem says so, 2002) - Interviews with Lem. Not translated into English.
Mój pogląd na literaturę (My View of Literature, 2003) - Not translated into English.
Krótkie zwarcia (Short Circuits, 2004) - Essays. Not translated into English.
Lata czterdzieste. Dyktanda. (The 40s, 2005) - Lem's works from the 1940s. Not translated into English. Film and TV adaptations

2008-04-28T00:09:00.001+09:00

Police are agents or agencies empowered to enforce the law and to effect public and social order through the legitimate use of force. The term is most commonly associated with police departments of a state that are authorized to exercise the police power of that state within a defined legal or territorial area of responsibility. The word comes via French from the Latin politia ("civil administration"), which itself derives from the Ancient Greek πόλις, for polis ("city"). Alternative names for police force include constabulary, gendarmerie, police department, police service, or law enforcement agency, and members can be police officers, constables, troopers, sheriffs, rangers, or peace officers. Russian police and police of the Soviet-era Eastern Europe is (or was) called militsiya.
In England and Wales, each police force or service is overseen by a police authority.

History
In Ancient Greece, publicly-owned slaves were used by magistrates as police. In Athens, a group of 300 Scythian slaves was used to guard public meetings to keep order and for crowd control, and also assisted with dealing with criminals, manhandling prisoners, and making arrests. Other duties associated with modern policing, such as investigating crimes, was left to the citizens themselves. The Roman Empire had a reasonably effective law enforcement system until the decline of the empire. When under the reign of Augustus the capital had grown to almost one million inhabitants, he created 14 wards, which were protected by seven squads of 1,000 men called "Vigiles," who guarded against fires and served as nightwatchmen. If necessary, they might have called the Praetorian Guard for assistance. Beginning in the 5th century, policing became a function of clan chiefs and heads of state.
The Anglo-Saxon system of maintaining public order was a private system of tithings, since the Norman conquest led by a constable, which was based on a social obligation for the good conduct of the others; more common was that local lords and nobles were responsible to maintain order in their lands, and often appointed a constable, sometimes unpaid, to enforce the law.

Pre-modern Europe
In Western culture, the contemporary concept of a police paid by the government was developed by French legal scholars and practitioners in the 17th century and early 18th century, notably with Nicolas Delamare's Traité de la Police ("Treatise on the Police", published between 1705 and 1738). The German Polizeiwissenschaft (Science of Police) was also an important theoretical formulation of police.
The first police force in the modern sense was created by the government of King Louis XIV in 1667 to police the city of Paris, then the largest city of Europe and considered the most dangerous European city. The royal edict, registered by the Parlement of Paris on March 15, 1667 created the office of lieutenant général de police ("lieutenant general of police"), who was to be the head of the new Paris police force, and defined police as the task of "ensuring the peace and quiet of the public and of private individuals, purging the city of what may cause disturbances, procuring abundance, and having each and everyone live according to their station and their duties". This office was held by Gabriel Nicolas de la Reynie, who had 44 commissaires de police (police commissioners) under his authority. In 1709, these commissioners were assisted by inspecteurs de police (police inspectors). The city of Paris was divided into 16 districts policed by the 44 commissaires de police, each assigned to a particular district and assisted in their districts by clerks and a growing bureaucracy. The scheme of the Paris police force was extended to the rest of France by a royal edict of October 1699, resulting in the creation of lieutenants general of police in all large French cities or towns.
As conceptualized by the Polizeiwissenschaft, the police had an economical and social duty ("procuring abundance"). It was in charge of demographics concerns and of empowering the population, which was considered by the mercantilist theory to be the main strength of the state. Thus, its functions largely overreached simple law enforcement activities, and included public health concerns, urban planning (which was important because of the miasma theory of disease; thus, cemeteries were moved out of town, etc.), surveillance of prices, etc. .
Development of modern police was contemporary to the formation of the state, later defined by sociologist Max Weber as detaining "the monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force," primarily exercised by the police and the military. Despite its differences, this definition was not completely alien to the Marxist definition of the state as a "repressive apparatus" guarding the bourgeoisie's interests.

The invention of "police"
After the troubles of the French Revolution the Paris police force was reorganized by Napoléon I on February 17, 1800 as the Prefecture of Police, along with the reorganization of police forces in all French cities with more than 5,000 inhabitants. On March 12, 1829, a government decree created the first uniformed policemen in Paris and all French cities, known as sergents de ville ("city sergeants"), which the Paris Prefecture of Police's website claims were the first uniformed policemen in the world.

Modern police
In most Western police forces, perhaps the most significant division is between preventive ("uniformed") police and detectives. Terminology varies from country to country. Police functions include protecting life and property, enforcing criminal law, criminal investigations, regulating traffic, crowd control, and other public safety duties.

Personnel and organization
Preventive Police, also called Uniform Branch, Uniformed Police, Uniform Division, Administrative Police, Order Police, or Patrol, designates the police which patrol and respond to emergencies and other incidents, as opposed to detective services. As the name "uniformed" suggests, they wear uniforms and perform functions that require an immediate recognition of an officer's legal authority, such as traffic control, stopping and detaining motorists, and more active crime response and prevention. Preventive police almost always make up the bulk of a police service's personnel. In Australia and Britain, patrol personnel are also known as "general duties" officers. Unusually, in Brazil, preventive police are known as Military Police.

Preventive police
Detective Police, also called Criminal Investigation Department (CID), Investigations Police, Judiciary Police / Judicial Police, or Criminal Police, are responsible for investigations and detective work. They typically make up roughly 15% - 25% of a police service's personnel.
Detectives, by contrast to uniform police, typically wear 'business attire' in bureaucratic and investigative functions where a uniformed presence would be either a distraction or intimidating, but a need to establish police authority still exists. "Plainclothes" officers dress in attire consistent with that worn by the general public for purposes of blending in. In some cases, police are assigned to work "undercover", where they conceal their police identity to investigate crimes, such as organized crime or narcotics crime, unsolvable by other means. In some cases this type of policing shares some aspects with espionage.
Despite popular conceptions promoted by movies and television, many US police departments prefer not to maintain officers in non-patrol bureaus and divisions beyond a certain period of time, such as in the detective bureau, and instead maintain policies that limit service in such divisions to a specified period of time, after which officers must transfer out or return to patrol duties. This is done in part based upon the perception that the most important and essential police work is accomplished on patrol in which officers become acquainted with their beats, prevent crime by their presence, respond to crimes in progress, manage crises, and practice their skills. Detectives, by contrast, usually investigate crimes after they have occurred and after patrol officers have responded first to a situation. Investigations often take weeks or months to complete, during which time detectives spend much of their time away from the streets, in interviews and courtrooms, for example. Rotating officers also promotes cross-training in a wider variety of skills, and serves to prevent "cliques" that can contribute to corruption or other unethical behavior.

Detective police
Police may also take on auxiliary administrative duties, such as issuing firearms licenses. The extent that police have these functions varies among countries, with police in France, Germany, and other continental European countries handling such tasks to a greater extent than British counterparts.

Specialized units
Police services commonly include units for investigating crimes committed by the police themselves. These units are typically called Inspectorate-General, or in the USA, "internal affairs". In some countries separate organizations outside the police exist for such purposes, such as the British Police Complaints Authority (now Independent Police Complaints Commission). Likewise, some state and local jurisdictions, for example, Springfield, Illinois have similar outside review organizations. The Police Service of Northern Ireland are investigated by the Police Ombudsman for Northern Ireland, an external agency which were set up as a result of the Patten report into policing the province.

Investigating crimes committed by the police
There are several types of military police services:

Gendarmeries are military force which polices a civilian population.
Provost services are military police services that work within the armed forces.
Constabulary A civilian police force trained and organized along military lines. Military police
In many jurisdictions, police officers carry firearms, primarily handguns, in the normal course of their duties.
Police often have specialist units for handling armed offenders, and similar dangerous situations, and can (depending on local laws), in some extreme circumstances, call on the military (since Military Aid to the Civil Power is a role of many armed forces). Perhaps the most high-profile example of this was, in 1980 the Metropolitan Police handing control of the Iranian Embassy Siege to the Special Air Service. They can also be equipped with non-lethal (more accurately known as "less than lethal" or "less-lethal") weaponry, particularly for riot control. Non-lethal weapons include batons, riot control agents, rubber bullets and electroshock weapons. The use of firearms or deadly force is typically a last resort only to be used when necessary to save human life, although some jurisdictions allow its use against fleeing felons and escaped convicts. Police officers often carry handcuffs to restrain suspects.
Modern police forces make extensive use of radio communications equipment, carried both on the person and installed in vehicles, to co-ordinate their work, share information, and get help quickly. In recent years, vehicle-installed computers have enhanced the ability of police communications, enabling easier dispatching of calls, criminal background checks on persons of interest to be completed in a matter of seconds, and updating the officer's daily activity log and other required reports on a real-time basis. Other common pieces of police equipment include flashlights/torches, whistles, and police notebooks and "ticketbooks" or citations.

Police armament and equipment

Main article: Police car Police vehicles
The advent of the police car, two-way radio, and telephone in the early 20th century transformed policing into a reactive strategy that focused on responding to calls for service.

Policing strategies
In many nations, criminal procedure law has been developed to regulate officers' discretion, so that they do not arbitrarily or unjustly exercise their powers of arrest, search and seizure, and use of force. In the United States, Miranda v. Arizona led to the widespread use of Miranda warnings or constitutional warnings. Police in the United States are also prohibited from holding criminal suspects for more than a reasonable amount of time (usually 72 hours) before arraignment, using torture to extract confessions, using excessive force to effect an arrest, and searching suspects' bodies or their homes without a warrant obtained upon a showing of probable cause. Using deception for confessions is permitted, but not coercion. There are exceptions or exigent circumstances such as an articulated need to disarm a suspect or searching a suspect who has already been arrested (Search Incident to an Arrest). The Posse Comitatus Act severely restricts the use of the military for police activity, giving added importance to police SWAT units.
British police officers are governed by similar rules, particularly those introduced under the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984, but generally have greater powers. They may, for example, legally search any suspect who has been arrested, or their vehicles, home or business premises, without a warrant, and may seize anything they find in a search as evidence. All police officers in the United Kingdom, whatever their actual rank, are 'constables' in terms of their legal position. This means that a newly appointed constable has the same arrest powers as a Chief Constable or Commissioner. However, certain higher ranks have additional powers to authorize certain aspects of police operations, such as a power to authorize a search of a suspect's house (section 18 PACE) by an officer of the rank of Inspector, or the power to authorize a suspect's detention beyond 24 hours by a Superintendent.

Restrictions upon the power of the police
Investigation of police corruption is sometimes made more difficult by a code of silence that encourages unquestioning loyalty to comrades over the cause of justice. If an officer breaks this code, they may receive death threats or even be left for dead, as in the case of Frank Serpico. One way to fight such corruption is by having an independent or semi-independent organization investigate, such as (in the United States) the Federal Justice Department, state Attorneys General, local District Attorneys, a police department's own internal affairs division, or specially appointed commissions. However, independent organizations are generally not used except for the most severe cases of corruption.

Police conduct and accountability
Police forces also find themselves under criticism for their use of force, particularly deadly force. Specifically, tension increases when a police officer of one race harms or kills a suspect of another race. In the United States, such events routinely spark protests and accusations of racism against police.
In the United States since the 1960s, concern over such issues has increasingly weighed upon law enforcement agencies, courts and legislatures at every level of government. Incidents such as the 1965 Watts Riots, the videotaped 1991 beating by Los Angeles Police officers of Rodney King, and the riot following their acquittal has depicted American police as dangerously lacking in appropriate controls. The fact that this trend has occurred contemporaneously with the rise of the US civil rights movement, the "War on Drugs" and a precipitous rise in violent crime from the 1960s to the 1990s has made questions surrounding the role, administration and scope of authority of police specifically and the criminal justice system as a whole increasingly complicated. Police departments and the local governments that oversee them in some jurisdictions have attempted to mitigate some of these issues through community outreach programs and community policing to make the police more accessible to the concerns of local communities; by working to increase hiring diversity; by updating training of police in their responsibilities to the community and under the law; and by increased oversight within the department or by civilian commissions. In cases in which such measures have been lacking or absent, local departments have been compelled by legal action initiated by the US Department of Justice under the 14th Amendment to enter into consent decree settlements to adopt such measures and submit to oversight by the Justice Department.
Some believe that police forces have been responsible for enforcing many bigoted perspectives. Ageism against teens, classism, homophobia, racism, and sexism are views which police have been charged with having held and enforced. Some police organizations are faced with routine accusations of racial profiling.

Use of force
The social status and pay of police can lead to problems with recruitment and morale. Jurisdictions lacking the resources or the desire to pay police appropriately, lacking a tradition of professional and ethical law enforcement, or lacking adequate oversight of the police often face a dearth of quality recruits, a lack of professionalism and commitment among their police, and broad mistrust of the police among the public. These situations often strongly contribute to police corruption and brutality. This is particularly a problem in countries undergoing social and political development; countries that lack rule of law or civil service traditions; or countries in transition from authoritarian or Communist governments in which the prior regime's police were little more than praetorians.

Police around the world

2008-04-27T01:57:00.001+09:00

The Danish and Norwegian alphabet is based upon the Latin alphabet and has consisted of the following 29 letters since 1955 (Norwegian since 1917):
This article is part of the series on: Danish language
Use: Alphabet Phonology Grammar

Other topics: History Literature

Dansk Sprognævn
(Listen to a Danish speaker recite the alphabet in Danish.)
The letters c, q, w, x and z are only used in loanwords. Some also spell their otherwise Scandinavian family names using these letters.

Diacritics
The letter Å (HTML å) was introduced in Norwegian in 1917, replacing Aa. Similarly, the letter Å was introduced in Danish in 1948, but the final decision on its place in the alphabet was not made. The initial proposal was to place it first, before A. Its place as the last letter of the alphabet, as in Norwegian, was decided in 1955. The former digraph Aa still occurs in names and old documents and is still the correct transliteration, if the letter is not available for technical reasons. Aa is treated like Å in alphabetical sorting, not like two adjacent letters A. This rule does not apply to non-Scandinavian names, so a modern dictionary would list the German city of Aachen under A but list the Danish town of Aabenraa under Å.
The difference between the Dano-Norwegian and the Swedish alphabet is that Swedish uses the variant Ä instead of Æ (HTML Æ), and the variant Ö instead of Ø (HTML Ø) — similar to German. Also, the collating order for these three characters is different: Å, Ä, Ö. Some scholars have argued that Ä/Æ and Ö/Ø are mere glyph variants of the same letters and should thus be encoded the same.
In current Danish and Norwegian, W is recognized as a separate letter from V. In Danish, the transition was made in 1980; before that, the W was merely considered to be a variation of the letter V and words using it were alphabetized accordingly (e.g.: "Wales, Vallø, Washington, Wedellsborg, Vendsyssel"). A common Danish children's song about the alphabet still states that the alphabet has 28 letters; the last line reads otte-og-tyve skal der stå, i.e. "that makes twenty-eight". However, today the letter "w" is considered an official letter.

2008-04-26T00:09:00.001+09:00

The blessing of same-sex unions is currently an issue about which some Christian Churches are at present in disagreement with other Christian churches. These disagreements are primarily centered on the interpretation of various scripture passages related to homosexuality, and in some Churches on the varying understandings of homosexuality in psychology, genetics and other scientific data. While various Church bodies have widely varying practices and teachings, individual Christians of every major tradition are involved in practical (orthopraxy) discussions about how to respond to the issue.
See also: List of Christian denominational positions on homosexuality

Terminology
Those Christians and Churches which support blessing of same-sex unions do so from several perspectives:
Those Christians and Churches which oppose same-sex unions and same-sex marriage do so from some or all of the following reasons:

The natural physical complementarity between the sexes.

The biology of sexuality is oriented toward procreation; homosexuality from this perspective is without merit.

Homosexual practices appear to be condemned in Genesis 18:17-19:29 (Sodom and Gomorrah) and Judges 19:1-20:48 (cf. 19:22)

Homosexual practices are explicitly condemned in Romans 1:26-28; 1 Corinthians 6:9-10; 1 Timothy 1:9-10 (NASB)

Interpretations of the Bible that deemphasize Old and New Testament passages regarding homosexual practice. Appeals to APA statements regarding homosexuality may influence this belief.
Believes that "the inclusiveness of Baptism" requires equal access to having relationships "blessed" by the church.
Belief that "all love is from God and is a reflection of and participation in Divine Love". And therefore that love present in same sex relationships ought to be recognized/ceremonialized in a church setting.
It is a matter of justice. Desire to provide "equality" or "equal access" in marriage services so as not to "marginalize" LGBT people or relationships.
It is a "compassionate response" that improves gay-straight relations and reduces anti-gay hate speech.
It is an affirmative good that stands alongside straight marriage and committed monastic celibacy as a revelation of God's self in the world.
Marriage is a Sacrament ("Matrimony") defined first in the Book of Genesis, then later in the teachings of Christ as a union of man and woman.
The Roman Catholic Church, in particular, also appeals to the reasoning of the Natural Law Tradition. According to Natural Law the "natural order" of human sexuality is oriented toward the opposite sex for several reasons:
The natural physical complementarity between the sexes.
The biology of sexuality is oriented toward procreation; homosexuality from this perspective is without merit.
Many churches rely on the words of the Bible as Divine Revelation (Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition).
Traditional or literal interpretations of Old and New Testament passages opposing homosexual activity:
Homosexual practices appear to be condemned in Genesis 18:17-19:29 (Sodom and Gomorrah) and Judges 19:1-20:48 (cf. 19:22)
Homosexual practices are explicitly condemned in Romans 1:26-28; 1 Corinthians 6:9-10; 1 Timothy 1:9-10 (NASB)
Moral condemnations against rectal intercourse that transcend biblical interpretation and that some say derive from homophobia. Theological differences between support and opposition
Some people feel that same-sex unions are middle ground between same sex marriage and condemnation of same sex relationships. Unions as a 'legal status' between individuals does not by itself conflict with Church teachings about the sacredness of "Marriage".
The Episcopal Church USA, many dioceses of which permit the blessing of same-sex unions, nevertheless rejected at their 2006 General Convention a resolution allowing the solemnization of same-sex marriages in Massachusetts, where same sex marriage is recognized by civil law.

Controversy between same-sex union and marriage
Same sex marriage is forbidden in a majority of Christian denominations, including Roman Catholics, Protestants (mainline, evangelical, non-denominational, and fundamentalist churches), Orthodox (the Eastern Orthodox Churches, and the Oriental Orthodox Churches) Churches, and the LDS Church. According to a 2002 study by the Marriage Law Project, which opposes same-sex marriage, denominations claiming 97.6% of US Christians and 99.97% of Christians worldwide presently declare that marriage is between a man and a woman. Because same sex religious unions are not widespread and because civil unions do not require religious officiation, documentation of the incidence of church blessing of same sex couples is difficult.

Churches unfavorable to same-sex unions and marriage
Due to its "local option", a number of congregations and ministers of the United Church of Canada (a merger of Congregationalist, Presbyterian and Methodist congregations in Canada following presbyterian polity) officiate at same-sex marriages, which are fully legal in Canada.
In the Anglican Communion, Integrity Toronto has been divided over whether to continue pressing for same-sex blessings, or to revise their goals to seek full marriage rights. Canberra Quakers and Queensland Quakers are prepared to celebrate same sex marriages despite the lack of legal recognition. See Quaker views of homosexuality
Many smaller denominations, such as the Eucharistic Catholic Church also solemnize same-sex marriages.

Churches favorable to same-sex marriage

Churches favorable to Same-sex union

Anglicanism
The Archbishop of Canterbury requested the Lambeth Commission on Communion to report to him by September, 2004. The Commission was asked to consider the legal and theological implications flowing from decisions related to homosexuality that were apparently threatening the communion. In addition to decisions relating to the blessing of same sex unions, the Commission was asked to examine the decision of the Episcopal Church (USA) to appoint a priest, Gene Robinson, in a committed same sex relationship as one of its bishops. The Commission was charged with specifically considering the effects on communion: "impaired and broken communion," between provinces of the Anglican Communion over the above decisions.
In its report, known as the Windsor Report, the Commission put forward the following general findings"
The Commission regrets that without attaching sufficient importance to the interests of the wider Communion:

The Episcopal Church (USA) proceeded with the consecration of Gene Robinson

The 74th General Convention of the Episcopal Church (USA) declared that 'local faith communities are operating within the bounds of our common life as they explore and experience liturgies celebrating and blessing same-sex unions'[80]

The Diocese of New Westminster approved the use of public Rites for the Blessing of same sex unions.

The General Synod of the Anglican Church of Canada issued a statement affirming the integrity and sanctity of committed same sex relationships.

A number of primates and other bishops have taken it upon themselves to intervene in the affairs of other provinces of the Communion.

The Commission called for a moratorium on the blessing of same sex unions, and recommended that bishops who have authorised such rites in the United States and Canada "be invited to express regret that the proper constraints of the bonds of affection were breached by such authorisation." The report was roundly condemned by the gay community and progressive theologians for its partiality. (For example, while it calls for both liberals and conservatives to express regret for actions contributing to disunity, it acknowledges that conservatives may have committees such actions out of a sense of duty, but extends no such understanding to the Dioceses of New Westminster or New Hampshire).

The Episcopal Church (USA) proceeded with the consecration of Gene Robinson
The 74th General Convention of the Episcopal Church (USA) declared that 'local faith communities are operating within the bounds of our common life as they explore and experience liturgies celebrating and blessing same-sex unions'[80]
The Diocese of New Westminster approved the use of public Rites for the Blessing of same sex unions.
The General Synod of the Anglican Church of Canada issued a statement affirming the integrity and sanctity of committed same sex relationships.
A number of primates and other bishops have taken it upon themselves to intervene in the affairs of other provinces of the Communion. Report of the Lambeth Commission
The General Synod of the Anglican Church of Canada in 2004 voted to defer a decision of same-sex blessings until 2007, but also to "Affirm the integrity and sanctity of committed adult same-sex relationships".

Anglican Church of Canada
Blessing of same sex unions became a subject of media attention in the Vancouver area in May, 2003 when Bishop Michael Ingham of the Diocese of New Westminster announced that he had given priests in some parishes the authority to bless gay and lesbian unions.

Diocese of New Westminster
This section has been tagged since January 2007.
The issue of blessing of same-sex unions was the subject of a resolution at the General Convention of the Episcopal Church of the USA held in Minneapolis, Minnesota, July 30 - August 8, 2003. After debate, the following resolution was concurred in and became an Act of the Convention:

Episcopal Church of the USA
Four churches of the Utrecht Union, which shares full communion with the Anglican Churches through the Bonn Agreement, also permit such blessings: namely, Old Catholic Church of the Netherlands (the mother church) permits blessings of gay civil marriages, and the Christian Catholic Church of Switzerland, and Catholic Diocese of the Old Catholics in Germany permit blessings of gay civil unions. The Old Catholic Church of Austria also permits such blessings (no civil unions there). Because of this (as well as the ordination of women), the Old Catholic Church in Slovakia and Polish National Catholic Church (USA) seceded from the Union in 2004.

Old Catholic Churches (Utrecht Union)
The Alliance of Baptists has supported the legal right to marry; its position on corollary church services is unclear.

Baptist Churches
The 2006 General Assembly of the Church of Scotland voted that blessing civil partnerships should be a matter of conscience for individual ministers. Conservatives in the Kirk argued that the reform would have to be ratified by local presbyteries.

Church of Scotland

Lutheran and Reformed Churches
In 2006, the Eastern Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada, the Anglican Church of Canada's full communion partner through the Waterloo Declaration, voted to allow a "local option" provision similar to that in New Westminster, precipitating a dispute between the synod and the national church (which had previously rejected the proposal) as to where the authority to make that decision lay. In September of that year, the ELCIC's national church council ruled that authority to permit the local option lay with the National Convention. The Council agreed to intiate further study on the issue and to bring forward another motion permitting the local option to the 2007 National Convention.

Canada
The Church of Sweden and the Church of Denmark (in full communion with the Anglican Churches of the British Isles through the Porvoo Communion) allow blessings of same-sex couples.

Sweden and Denmark
The lutheran church Evangelical Lutheran Church in America allowed blessings of same-sex couples.

United States
In addition, some Lutheran, United and Reformed churches within the Protestant Church in Germany Germany

Swiss Reformed Church Switzerland

Protestant Church in the Netherlands Netherlands
These lutheran, united and reformed churches in Germany, Switzerland, Netherlands and Austria bless same-gender unions.

Evangelische Kirche H.B. in Österreich Austria
The Presbyterian Church USA has a limited allowance for such blessings, but does not officially endorse that the unions be consummated.
The General Assembly Permanent Judicial Commission (PJC) has ruled that same-sex ceremonies are not forbidden, as long as they are not considered to be the same as marriage services.

Presbyterian Church (USA)
The Methodist Church of Great Britain voted in 2005 to allow a local option for ministers who wishes to perform same-sex blessings. However, a year later, the Church voted not to allow formal blessings for same-sex partnerships in its churches after all. Ministers may now instead offer informal, private prayers for couples.
The United Methodist Church prohibits celebrations of same-sex unions by its elders and in its churches.

Methodism
The Moravian Church in North America's Northern Province has passed several liberal resolutions on homosexuality, but has not yet been able to "address the issue of a marriage covenant between homosexual persons".

Moravian Church (North America)
The Protestant Church in the Netherlands has chosen not to address marriage in its post-merger canon law; however, the by-laws of the church allow for the blessing of relationships outside of marriage.

Protestant Church in the Netherlands
Some ministers of the Unity School of Christianity officiate at commitment ceremonies. The Church prints certificates to recognise these occasions.

Unity Church
The United Church of Christ has no formal rules requiring or prohibiting solemnization of wedding vows, but owing to its Congregational polity and constitution,

2008-04-25T01:30:00.000+09:00

Ibn Rustah (in Persian: احمد ابن رسته اصفهانی - Aḥmad ebn Roste Eṣfahānī) was a 10th century Persian explorer and geographer born in Rosta district, Isfahan, Persia
His impression of the Rus' is very favourable (especially compared to the relation of Ibn Fadlan):
"They carry clean clothes and the men adorn themselves with bracelets and gold. They treat their slaves well and also they carry exquisite clothes, because they put great effort in trade. They have many towns. They have a most friendly attitude towards foreigners and strangers who seek refuge."
Of ancient Croatia he wrote in the chronicle Al-Djarmi:
"Their ruler is crowned … He dwells in the midst of the Slavs … He bears the title of 'ruler of rulers' and is called 'sacred king'. He is more powerful than the zupan (viceroy), who is his deputy … His capital is called Drzvab where is held a fair of three days every month."
About a certain king of the Caucasus Ibn Rustah wrote:
"He prayed on Fridays with the Muslims, on Saturdays with the Jews and on Sundays with the Christians. 'Since each religion claims that it is the only true one and that the others are invalid', the king explained, 'I have decided to hedge my bets.'"
He also travelled extensively in Arabia and is one of the early Persian explorers to describe the city of Sana'a. In his Book of Precious Records, he writes:
"It is the city of Yemen — there not being found in the highland or the Tihama or the Hijaz a city greater, more populous or more prosperous, of more noble origin or more delicious food than it. … San'a is a populous city with fine dwellings, some above others, but most of them are decorated with plaster, burned bricks, and dressed stones."

Literature

Ibn Rustah, Encyclopaedia Iranica, New York 2003.
Ibn Rustah, Kitāb al-A'lāk an-Nafīsa, ed. M. J. De Goeje, Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum [BGA], Leiden, E. J. Brill, 1892

2008-04-24T00:01:00.001+09:00

Hutterite German (Hutterisch) is an Upper German dialect of the Austro-Bavarian variety of the German language, which is spoken by Hutterite communities in Canada and the United States. Hutterite is also called Tirolean, but this is an anachronism.

History and related languages

Pennsylvania German
Texas German
Plautdietsch
Hutterite

2008-04-23T01:26:00.001+09:00

Statues of Abraham Lincoln and Other tributes
Statues of Lincoln can be found in other countries. In Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, Mexico, is a 13-foot (4 m) high bronze statue, a gift from the United States, dedicated in 1966 by President Lyndon B. Johnson. The U.S. received a statue of Benito Juárez in exchange, which is in Washington, D.C. Juárez and Lincoln exchanged friendly letters during the American Civil War, Mexico remembers Lincoln's opposition to the Mexican-American War. (For his part, Juárez refused to aide the Confederacy and jailed those Confederates who sought his help.) There is also a statue in Tijuana, Mexico, showing Lincoln standing and destroying the chains of slavery. There are at least three statues of Lincoln in the United Kingdom — one in London by Augustus St. Gaudens, one in Manchester by George Grey Barnard and another in Edinburgh by George Bissell. In Havana, Cuba, there is a bust of Abraham Lincoln in the Museum of the Revolution, a small statue of him in front of the Abraham Lincoln School, and a bust of him near the Capitolio.

Outside the United States
O Captain! My Captain!, Walt Whitman, 1865

Known Poetry

Fictional depictions
The first known motion picture based on Mr. Lincoln was 1908 film The Reprieve: An Episode in the Life of Abraham Lincoln. Directed by Van Dyke Brooke, the film shows Lincoln pardoning a sentry who fell asleep on duty, a theme that would be depicted repeatedly in other silent era shorts.

1900-1909
As with the first picture on Lincoln, most of the films in this decade featured Lincoln pardoning sleeping sentries. Films included The Sleeping Sentinel (1910), Abraham Lincoln's Clemency (1910), When Lincoln Was President (1913), When Lincoln Paid (1913), and The Sleeping Sentinel (1914).

1910-1919

The Dramatic Life of Abraham Lincoln (1924)
Abraham Lincoln (1924/I) 1920-1929

Abraham Lincoln (film) (1930) (or D.W. Griffith's "Abraham Lincoln")
Are We Civilized? 1934
The Plainsman 1936 where actor Frank McGlynn Sr. played Lincoln in the opening sequence of the film.
Young Mr. Lincoln 1939 1930-1939

Abe Lincoln in Illinois (1940) 1940-1949

"Ann Rutledge", a 1950 episode of The Philco Television Playhouse, featuring Stephen Courtleigh as Lincoln and Grace Kelly as Ann Rutledge.
"Mr. Lincoln", a five-part TV episode appearing in 1952-53 on Omnibus, with Royal Dano as Lincoln.
"How Chance Made Lincoln President", a 1955 episode of TV Reader's Digest.
Love is Eternal, a 1955 novel by Irving Stone.
"Love Is Eternal", a 1955 episode of General Electric Theater, with Richard Boone as Lincoln and Teresa Wright as Mary Todd Lincoln.
"The Day Lincoln Was Shot", a 1956 episode of Ford Star Jubilee, featuring Raymond Massey as Lincoln and Jack Lemmon as John Wilkes Booth. 1950-1959

"The Chase", episode 2.8 of Doctor Who, which aired in 1964, included Robert Marsden as Abe.
The Time Tunnel 1966 late series episode where Doug and Tony travel back in time and meet Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln was played by actor Ford Rainey.
Star Trek: The Original Series 1969 episode "The Savage Curtain" (3.22), where an alien creates an image of him to represent "Good" in a Good vs. Evil experiment. He was one of Captain Kirk's heroes growing up in the 23rd century. He was played by actor Lee Bergere. 1960-1969

The American Disney theme parks feature an Audio-Animatronics Abraham Lincoln in the show Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln and the Hall of Presidents.
In "Sex and Violence", a 1975 pilot for The Muppet Show, an Abraham Lincoln muppet appears (voiced by John Lovelady)
The Lincoln Conspiracy (1977) 1970-1979

Gregory Peck portrayed Lincoln in the 1982 television movie, The Blue and the Gray.
The 1988 telefilm Lincoln starred Sam Waterston in the title role, and Mary Tyler Moore as his wife. The movie was based on a novel by Gore Vidal.
Robert V. Barron appeared as Lincoln in Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure (1989), and episodes of Out of This World (#2.15, 1988).
Appears as Joshua Speed in Parke Godwin's sci-fi novel The Snake Oil Wars.
In Pee-Wee's Big Adventure, Pee-Wee Herman's breakfast-making machine, a complex Rube Goldberg-esque device, features a statue of Lincoln as a component. The statue is used to flip pancakes, most of which stick to the ceiling of the kitchen.

2008-04-22T01:20:00.001+09:00

Joseph Oden Rudi (born September 7, 1946 in Modesto, California) is a former left fielder in Major League Baseball who played for the Kansas City & Oakland Athletics (1967-76, 1982), California Angels (1977-80) and Boston Red Sox (1981). He batted and threw right handed. Currently works in real estate in Baker City, OR. He is also an Amateur Radio Operator, call sign NK7U.

Kansas City Athletics / Oakland Athletics (1967–1975, 1982)
California Angels (1977–1980)
Boston Red Sox (1981)
3-time All-Star (1972, 1974-75)
3-time Gold Glove Award (1974-76)
Led American League in hits (1972)
Led AL in doubles (1974)
Led AL in triples (1972)
Led AL in extra base hits (1974) Playing With The A's
His best batting average was he hit .309 in 1970, he had a career best 181 hits in 1972, that year, he led the Athletics to the World Series, and in game 2, made a great game-saving catch that would be the highlight reel for many Major League Baseball films, with a Cincinnati Reds player on base and Oakland leading 2-0 in the ninth inning, Rudi raced to the left-field fence and made a leaping, backhanded catch of Denis Menke's smash. in 1974 he had a career best 22 home runs and 99 runs batted in, he even hit a home run in the World Series, as his Athletics became the first team since the 1949-1953 New York Yankees to win 3 straight World Championships.
In a 16-year career, Rudi was a .264 hitter with 179 home runs and 810 RBI in 1547 games.

2008-04-21T00:52:00.001+09:00

The Old Taiwan dollar (舊臺幣 or 舊台幣), sometimes called Old Taiwan yuan, was the currency of Taiwan, Republic of China from 1946 to 1949. It was issued by the Bank of Taiwan.

History of the Old Taiwan dollar
No coins were issued.

2008-04-20T02:14:00.001+09:00

Computer engineering (also called electronic and computer engineering) is a discipline that combines elements of both electrical engineering and computer science. which relies heavily on using digital systems to control and monitor electrical systems like motors, communications, and sensors.
The terms hardware engineering and hardware engineer are also used, referring to the opposite of software engineering.

Computer engineering as an academic discipline

Electrical engineering
List of electrical engineers
Engineer
Computer
Computer science
Computer-aided software engineering

2008-04-19T00:20:00.001+09:00

Alla Borisovna Pugachova (Алла Борисовна Пугачёва), pronounced "Pougachiova" or "Pugachova" and commonly anglicized as Pugacheva, born 15 April 1949 in Moscow, USSR, is perhaps the best known musical performer in Russia, her career having started in 1965 and continuing to this day. She is certainly the most successful Soviet and Russian performer in terms of record sales and popularity (* see notes about record sales below).

Professional biography
Alla's personal life has been very public due to her image and popularity, and is often discussed in the tabloid press. Her weight and rumours of extramarital relationships have been particularly popular points of discussion in such publications. However, she has maintained a positive attitude, and on numerous occasions shown that she is willing to discuss personal matters openly and laugh at herself.
In 1969 she married circus performer Mykolas Orbakas, and in 1971 she gave birth to daughter Kristina Orbakaite, who is now also a popular singer. She divorced Mykolas after 4 years of marriage in 1973.
Alla then married film director Aleksandr Stefanovich in 1976, and starred in a few of his movies. The union was dissolved in 1980, after drawn-out legal proceedings on the division of property, with Alla's luxurious flat in Patriarshy Ponds, Moscow being the heart of the debate.
In 1985, after years of living together, Alla married producer Yevgeniy Boldin, with whom she had numerous professional collaborations. They filed for divorce in 1993, stating that their professional lives interfered too much with their personal life.
In 1994 she married one of the most popular pop singers in Russia, Filipp Kirkorov, half her age and of Bulgarian-Armenian ethnicity. His career is said to have benefited significantly from the marriage. Their divorce was announced in November 2005.
She has also recently befriended popular comedian Maksim Galkin, and the relationship between them has been the source of numerous tabloid rumours, even though there is a 27-year age difference between them, and both sides have repeatedly stated that they are just friends. The two often perform together in large celebrity-studded events, such as New Year's day shows, and have even had a few musical collaborations.
Since 2005 she has been a member of the Public Chamber of Russia.

Personal history

Discography
МТ 702909-288-1

1976 Alla Pugacheva & Vesyoliye Rebyata [Алла Пугачева и Веселые Ребята] (released in Bulgaria) - live / split
1978 Alla Pugacheva (released in Japan) - compiltaion
1978 Ala Pugachova. Ogledalo na dushata [Ала Пугачова. Огледало на душата] (released in Bulgaria)
1979 Alla Pugacheva & Iosif Kobzon [Алла Пугачева и Иосиф Кобзон] - split
1980 Disco A [Дискотека А] - instrumental remixes
1980 Alla Pugatšova. Huipulla (Kansan, Finland) - compilation
1981 Alla Pugačova (a Czech variant of the LP Something's Still To Come)
1981 Alla Pugatšova. Tähtikesä (Kansan, Finland) - compilation
1982 Meet Maetsro [У нас в гостях маэстро] - live / split
1982 Parade of Planets [Парад планет] - split
1983 Million Roses [Миллион роз] (released in Japan) - compilation
1983 Alla Pugacovova. Davna pisen (a Czech - only compilation)
1984 Alla Pugacheva - Soviet Superstar. Greatest Hits 1976-84 (released in Sweden) - compilation
1985 Alla Pugacheva - Soviet Superstar vol.2 (released in Finland) - compilation
1988 Songs Instead Of Letters [Песни вместо писем] - split with Udo Lindenberg
1989 Ferry Captain [Паромщик] - album #8 (Finland version)
1991 Alla (Ritonis, Riga)
1994 I Believe In You [Верю в тебя] - compilation
1995 The Path of a Star [Путь звезды] - compilation
1996 A 13 CD compilation of songs previously released only on LP and MC:

Over the Sharp Needles of the Bright Flame [По острым иглам яркого огня]
Ah, How I Want to Live! [Ах, как хочется жить!]
And That's What All My Sadness Is [И в этом вся моя печаль]
Only in Movies [Только в кино]
That's Tomorrow, But Today... [Это завтра, а сегодня...]
Ticket to Yesterday's Show [Билет на вчерашний спектакль]
Rendez-vous on the Way [Встречи в пути]
On the Road of Expectations [На дороге ожиданий]
Ponderings by the Fireplace [Размышления у камина]
That Happened One Time [Это было однажды]
Lady From the Countryside Outpost [Барышня с Крестьянской заставы]
Alla Pugacheva in Stockholm [Алла Пугачева в Стокгольме]
Songs for the Encore [Песни на бис]
1996 Alla Pugacheva Sings [Поет Алла Пугачева] (songs by Aleksandr Zazepin) - compilation
1997 Two Stars [Две звезды] (with Vladimir Kuzmin) - compilation / split
1998 Surprise from Alla Pugacheva [Сюрприз от Аллы Пугачевой] - tribute

1978 The Woman Who Sings [Женщина, которая поёт], Mosfilm
1981 Love After Love [Любовью за любовь], Mosfilm
1984 Meetings with Alla Pugacheva [Встречи с Аллой Пугачёвой], USSR TV
1985 I Came to Say [Пришла и говорю], Mosfilm
1985 The Season of Miracles [Сезон чудес], Odessa Film Studio
1989-2002 Christmas Meetings [Рождественские встречи], USSR TV, Ostankino, Public Russian Television, Russian State Television
1995 Wait and Remember Me [Жди и помни меня], Public Russian Television
2003 After Two Hares [За двумя зайцами] Notes

Best selling music artists - World's top selling music artists chart.

2008-04-18T01:52:00.001+09:00

The Nestlé Children's Book Prize, formerly known as the Nestlé Smarties Book Prize is an annual award given to children's books written in the previous year by a UK citizen or resident. The prize is administered by Booktrust, an independent charity which promotes books and reading. The prize is sponsored by Nestlé, manufacturer of Smarties.
A panel of adult judges chooses a shortlist for the award, and schoolchildren across the UK vote on the first, second and third place winners. (A similar American award is the Dorothy Canfield Fisher Children's Book Award).

List of prize winners

Gold Award
- 9-11 years category: The Diamond of Drury Lane by Julia Golding (Egmont Press)
  6-8 years category: Mouse Noses on Toast by Daren King (Faber and Faber)
  0-5 years category: That Rabbit Belongs to Emily Brown by Cressida Cowell & Neal Layton (Orchard Books)
  Silver Award
  - 9-11 years category: The Tide Knot by Helen Dunmore (HarperCollins)
    6-8 years category: Hugo Pepper by Paul Stewart and Chris Riddell (Doubleday)
    0-5 years category: The Emperor of Absurdia by Chris Riddell (Macmillan)
    Bronze Award
    - 9-11 years category: The Pig Who Saved the World by Paul Shipton (Puffin)
      6-8 years category: The Adventures of the The Dish and The Spoon by Mini Grey (Jonathan Cape)
      0-5 years category: Wibbly Pig's Silly Big Bear by Mick Inkpen (Hodder) 2006
      - Gold Award
        
        9-11 years category: I, Coriander by Sally Gardner (Orion)
        6-8 years category: The Whisperer by Nick Butterworth (HarperCollins)
        0-5 years category: Lost and Found by Oliver Jeffers (HarperCollins)
        Silver Award
        
        9-11 years category: The Scarecrow and his Servant by Philip Pullman (DoubleDay)
        6-8 years category: Sad Book by Michael Rosen, illustrated by Quentin Blake (Walker Books)
        0-5 years category: The Dancing Tiger by Malachy Doyle, illustrated by Steve Johnson and Lou Fancher (Simon and Schuster)
        Bronze Award
        
        9-11 years category: The Whispering Road by Livi Michael (Puffin)
        6-8 years category: Corby Flood by Paul Stewart and Chris Riddell (DoubleDay)
        0-5 years category: Wolves by Emily Gravett (MacMillan) 2005
        
        Gold Award
        
        9-11 years category: Spilled Water by Sally Grindley (Bloomsbury)
        6-8 years category: Fergus Crane by Paul Stewart and Chris Riddell (Doubleday)
        0-5 years category: Biscuit Bear by Mini Grey (Cape)
        Silver Award
        
        9-11 years category: The Star of Kazan by Eva Ibbotson (Macmillan)
        6-8 years category: Cloud Busting by Malorie Blackman (Doubleday)
        0-5 years category: My Big Brother Boris by Liz Pichon (Scholastic)
        Bronze Award
        
        9-11 years category: Keeper by Mal Peet (Walker)
        6-8 years category: Smile! By Geraldine McCaughrean (OUP)
        0-5 years category: Bartholomew and the Bug by Neal Layton (Hodder)
        
        4Children Special Award: Fergus Crane by Paul Stewart and Chris Riddell (Doubleday) 2004
        
        Gold Award
        
        9-11 years category: The Fire-Eaters by David Almond
        6-8 years category: Varjak Paw by S. F. Said, illustrated by Dave McKean
        0-5 years category: The Witch's Children and the Queen by Ursula Jones, illustrated by Russell Ayto
        Silver Award
        
        9-11 years category: Montmorency by Eleanor Updale
        6-8 years category: The Last Castaways by Harry Horse
        0-5 years category: Tadpole's Promise by Jeanne Willis, illustrated by Tony Ross
        Bronze Award
        
        9-11 years category: The Various by Steve Augarde
        6-8 years category: The Countess's Calamity by Sally Gardner
        0-5 years category: Two Frogs by Chris Wormell
        
        Kids' Club Award: The Countess's Calamity by Sally Gardner 2002
        
        Gold Award
        
        9-11 years category: Journey to the River Sea by Eva Ibbotson (Macmillan)
        6-8 years category: The Shrimp by Emily Smith (Young Corgi)
        0-5 years category: Chimp and Zee by Catherine and Laurence Anholt (Frances Lincoln)
        Silver Award
        
        9-11 years category: The Haunting of Alaizabel Cray by Chris Wooding (Scholastic)
        6-8 years category: Ug by Raymond Briggs (by Cape)
        0-5 years category: Kipper's A to Z by Mick Inkpen (Hodder)
        Bronze Award
        
        9-11 years category: The Kite Rider by Geraldine McCaughrean (Oxford University Press)
        6-8 years category: What Planet Are You From Clarice Bean? by Lauren Child (Orchard Books)
        0-5 years category: Five Little Friends by Sarah Dyer (Bloomsbury)
        Kids' Club Network Special Award: What Planet Are You From Clarice Bean? by Lauren Child (Orchard Books) 2001
        
        Gold Award
        
        9-11 years category: The Wind Singer by William Nicholson (Mammoth)
        6-8 years category: Lizzie Zipmouth by Jacqueline Wilson, illustrated by Nick Sharratt (Young Corgi)
        0-5 years category: Max by Bob Graham (Walker Books)
        Silver Award
        
        9-11 years category: The Other Side of Truth by Beverley Naidoo (Puffin)
        6-8 years category: The Red and White Spotted Handkerchief by Tony Mitton, illustrated by Peter Bailey (Scholastic)
        0-5 years category: Me and My Cat by Satoshi Kitamura (Andersen)
        Bronze Award
        
        9-11 years category: The Seeing Stone by Kevin Crossley-Holland (Orion)
        6-8 years category: Beware of the Storybook Wolves by Lauren Child (Hodder)
        0-5 years category: Husherbye by John Burningham (Jonathan Cape)
        Kids' Club Network Special Award: Lizzie Zipmouth by Jacqueline Wilson, illustrated by Nick Sharratt (Young Corgi) 2000
        
        Gold Award
        
        9-11 years category: Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban by J. K. Rowling (Bloomsbury)
        6-8 years category: Snow White and the Seven Aliens by Laurence Anholt, illustrated by Arthur Robins (Orchard Books)
        0-5 years category: The Gruffalo by Julia Donaldson, illustrated by Axel Scheffler (Macmillan)
        Silver Award
        
        9-11 years category: Kit's Wilderness by David Almond (Hodder Children's Books)
        6-8 years category: Astrid, the Au Pair from Outer Space by Emily Smith (Corgi)
        0-5 years category: Buffy - An Adventure Story by Bob Graham (Walker Books)
        Bronze Award
        
        9-11 years category: Angus, Thongs and Full-Frontal Snogging by Louise Rennison (Piccadilly Press)
        6-8 years category: Clarice Bean That's Me by Lauren Child (Orchard Books)
        0-5 years category: I Wish I Were a Dog by Lydia Monks (Methuen) 1999
        
        Gold Award
        
        9-11 years category: Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets by J. K. Rowling (Bloomsbury)
        6-8 years category: Last of the Gold Diggers by Harry Horse (Puffin Books)
        0-5 years category: Cowboy Baby by Sue Heap (Walker Books)
        Silver Award
        
        9-11 years category: Aquila by Andrew Noriss (Puffin Books)
        6-8 years category: The Runner by Keith Gray (Mammoth Books)
        0-5 years category: Come On Daisy by Jane Simmons (Orchard Books)
        Bronze Award
        
        9-11 years category: The Crowstarver by Dick King-Smith (Doubleday)
        6-8 years category: The Green Ship by Quentin Blake (Jonathan Cape)
        0-5 years category: Secret in the Mist by Margaret Nash (David & Charles) 1998
        
        Gold Award
        
        9-11 years category: Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone by J. K. Rowling (Bloomsbury)
        6-8 years category: The Owl Tree by Jenny Nimmo, illustrated by Anthony Lewis (Walker Books)
        0-5 years category: Ginger by Charlotte Voake (Walker Books)
        Silver Award
        
        9-11 years category: Clockwork or All Wound Up by Philip Pullman (Corgi Yearling)
        6-8 years category: The Little Reindeer by Michael Foreman (Andersen Press)
        0-5 years category: Leon and Bob by Simon James (Walker Books)
        Bronze Award
        
        9-11 years category: Fire, Bed and Bone by Henrietta Branford (Walker Books)
        6-8 years category: We Animals Would Like a Word With You by John Agard, illustrated by Satoshi Kitamura (Bodley Head)
        0-5 years category: Fruits by Valerie Bloom, illustrated by David Axtell (Macmillan) 1997
        
        Gold Award
        
        9-11 years category: The Firework-Maker's Daughter by Philip Pullman, illustrated by Nick Harris (Corgi Yearling)
        6-8 years category: The Butterfly Lion by Michael Morpurgo, illustrated by Christian Birmingham (Collins Children's Books)
        0-5 years category: Oops! by Colin McNaughton (Andersen Press)
        Silver Award
        
        9-11 years category: Johnny and the Bomb by Terry Pratchett (Doubleday)
        6-8 years category: Harry the Poisonous Centipede by Lynne Reid Banks, illustrated by Tony Ross (Collins Children's Books)
        0-5 years category: The World is Full of Babies by Mick Manning and Brita Granstrom (Watts Books)
        Bronze Award
        
        9-11 years category: Plundering Paradise by Geraldine McCaughrean (Oxford University Press)
        6-8 years category: All Because of Jackson by Dick King-Smith, illustrated by John Eastwood (Doubleday)
        0-5 years category: Clown by Quentin Blake (Cape) 1996
        
        9-11 category and overall winner: Double Act by Jacqueline Wilson (Doubleday)
        6 - 8 years category winner: Thomas and the Tinners by Jill Paton Walsh (Macdonald Young Books)
        0 - 5 years category winner: The Last Noo-Noo by Jill Murphy (Walker Books) 1995
        
        9 - 11 category and overall winner: The Exiles at Home by Hilary McKay (Gollancz)
        6 - 8 years category winner: Dimanche Diller by Henrietta Branford, illustrated by Lesley Harker (Young Lions)
        0 - 5 years category winner: So Much by Trish Cooke, illustrated by Helen Oxenbury (Walker Books) 1994
        
        9 - 11 years category winner: Listen to the Dark by Maeve Henry (Heinemann)
        6 - 8 category and overall winner: War Game by Michael Foreman (Pavilion)
        0 - 5 years category winner: Hue Boy by Rita Phillips Mitchell (Gollancz) 1993
        
        9 - 11 category and overall winner: The Great Elephant Chase by Gillian Cross (Oxford University Press)
        0 - 5 years category winner: Nice Work, Little Wolf by Hilda Offen (Hamish Hamilton)
        6 - 8 years category winner: The Story of the Creation by Jane Ray (Orchard Books) 1992
        
        0 - 5 years category and overall winner: Farmer Duck by Martin Waddell and Helen Oxenbury (Walker Books)
        6 - 8 years category winner: Josie Smith and Eileen by Magdalen Nabb (Collins)
        9 - 11 years category winner: Krindledrax by Philip Ridley (Cape) 1991
        
        9 - 11 years category and overall winner: Midnight Blue by Pauline Fisk (Lion)
        0 - 5 years category winner: Six Dinner Sid by Inga Moore (Simon & Schuster)
        6 - 8 years category winner: Esio Trot by Roald Dahl, illustrated by Quentin Blake (Cape) 1990
        
        0 - 5 years category and overall winner: We're Going on a Bear Hunt by Michael Rosen, illustrated by Helen Oxenbury (Walker Books)
        6 - 8 years category winner: Bill's New Frock by Anne Fine (Methuen)
        9 - 11 years category winner: Blitzcat by Robert Westall (Macmillan) 1989
        
        0 - 5 years category and overall winner: Can't You Sleep Little Bear? by Martin Waddell and Barbara Firth (Walker Books)
        6 - 8 years category winner: Can it be True? by Susan Hill (Hamish Hamilton)
        9 - 11 years category winner: Rushavenn Time by Theresa Whistler (Brixworth Primary School) 1988
        
        9 - 11 years category and overall winner: A Thief in the Village by James Berry (Hamish Hamilton)
        0 - 5 years category winner: The Angel and the Soldier Boy by Peter Collington (Methuen)
        6 - 8 years category winner: Tangle and the Firesticks by Benedict Blathwayt (Julia MacRae) 1987
        
        The Snow Spider by Jenny Nimmo (Methuen) 1985
        
        Carnegie Medal
        Guardian Award
        Kate Greenaway Medal
        Newbery medal

2008-04-17T00:58:00.001+09:00

People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm is the debut alternative hip hop album by A Tribe Called Quest, released on April 17, 1990 (see 1990 in music). Though the album was well-received critically, it had little mainstream appeal. It did earn the band a devoted following however, within the alternative hip hop community. People's Instinctive Travels and Paths of Rhythm was praised for its lyrical inventiveness and bizarre sense of humor, mixed with socially aware and literate message tracks. It is one of three A Tribe Called Quest albums included in The Source Magazine's 100 Best Rap Albums.
Critical reviews were generally positive, but many felt that the group's effort was immature and unfocused. John Bush of allmusic writes "Tribe perhaps experimented too much on their debut, but they succeeded at much of it, certainly enough to show much promise as a new decade dawned". Rolling Stone magazine's Chuck Eddy found the album "one of the least danceable albums" in hip hop, and said that the performers sounded boring.

All Music Guide link
The Source Track listing
The information is taken from AcclaimedMusic.net and other website links below.
( * ) designates lists which are unordered.

Accolades

Released: July 5, 1990
B-side: "Mr. Muhammad"
Released: October 29, 1990
B-side: "Spirits", "If The Papes Come", "If The Papes Come (Remix)"
Released: 1990
B-side: "Pubic Enemy" Singles Chart Positions

A Tribe Called Quest - Producer, Mixing
Tim Latham - Engineer
Ali Shaheed Muhammad - DJ
Bob Power - Engineer
Q-Tip - Vocals
Anthony Saunders - Engineer
Dr. Shane Faber - Engineer
Jarobi White - Performer
Phife Dawg - Vocals
Ari Marcopoulos - Photography
Lucien - Background Vocals

2008-04-16T01:29:00.001+09:00

Drama is the specific mode of fiction represented in performance.

History of drama
The three types of drama composed in the city of Athens were tragedy, comedy, and satyrs. The origins of Athenian tragedy and comedy are far from clear, but they began (and continued to be) as a part of the celebrations of the god Dionysus, which were held once a year. Every year three authors were chosen to write three dramas, and one satyrplay each. Similarly, five authors were also chosen to write three comedies and a satyr play each. Each tragedy tetralogy was then performed in 3 successive days, and on the last day the 5 comedies competed. All the plays were played in the Dionysos theatre in Athens, and the best author for both tragedy and comedy was chosen.
The chorus seems to have originated with a leader singing a song about some legendary hero. Later the leader, rather than singing about the hero, began to impersonate him. Spoken dialogue between several actors was added, and the result was "tragedy" in the Greek form. The very first prize for tragedy went to Thespis in 534 BC.
In fact, the two masks associated with drama with the smiling and frowning faces are both symbols of the Muses Thalia and Melpomene. Thalia is the Muse of comedy (the smiling face), and Melpomene is the Muse of tragedy (the frowning face).

Medieval
One of the great flowerings of drama in England occurred in the 16th and 17th centuries. Many of these plays were written in verse, particularly iambic pentameter. In addition to Shakespeare, such authors as Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Middleton, and Ben Jonson were prominent playwrights during this period. As in the medieval period, historical plays celebrated the lives of past kings, enhancing the image of the Tudor monarchy. Authors of this period drew some of their storylines from Greek mythology and Roman mythology or from the plays of eminent Roman playwrights such as Plautus and Terence.

Elizabethan and Jacobean
Western opera is a dramatic art form, which arose during the Renaissance in an attempt to revive the classical Greek drama tradition in which both music and theatre were combined. Being strongly intertwined with western classical music, the opera has undergone enormous changes in the past four centuries and it is an important form of theatre until this day. Noteworthy is the huge influence of the German 19th century composer Richard Wagner on the opera tradition. In his view, there was no proper balance between music and theatre in the operas of his time, because the music seemed to be more important than the dramatic aspects in these works. To restore the connection with the traditional Greek drama, he entirely renewed the operatic format, and to emphasize the equally importance of music and drama in these new works, he called them "music dramas".

Opera
Chinese opera is a popular form of drama in China. In general, it dates back to the Tang Dynasty with Emperor Xuanzong (712-755), who founded the "Pear Garden" (梨园), the first known opera troupe in China. The troupe mostly performed for the emperors' personal pleasure. To this day operatic professionals are still referred to as "Disciples of the Pear Garden" (梨园弟子). In the Yuan dynasty (1279-1368), forms like the Zaju (杂剧, variety plays), which acts based on rhyming schemes plus the innovation of having specialized roles like "Dan" (旦,female), "Sheng" (生, male), "Hua" (花, painted-face) and "Chou" (丑, clown) were introduced into the opera. The dominant form of the Ming and early Qing dynasties was Kunqu, which came from the Wu cultural area, and evolved a longer form of play called chuanqi. Chinese operas continue to exist in 368 different forms now, the best known of which is Beijing opera, which assumed its present form in the mid-19th century and was extremely popular in the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911).
In Beijing opera, traditional Chinese string and percussion instruments provide a strong rhythmic accompaniment to the acting. The acting is based on allusion: gestures, footwork, and other body movements express such actions as riding a horse, rowing a boat, or opening a door. Spoken dialogue is divided into recitative and Beijing colloquial speech, the former employed by serious characters and the latter by young females and clowns. Character roles are strictly defined. Elaborate make-up designs portray which character is acting. The traditional repertoire of Beijing opera includes more than 1,000 works, mostly taken from historical novels about political and military struggles.
In traditional Chinese theater, no plays were performed in the vernacular Chinese or without singing. But at the turn of the 20th century, Chinese students returning from abroad began to experiment with Western plays. Following the May Fourth Movement of 1919, a number of Western plays were staged in China, and Chinese playwrights began to imitate this form. The most notable of the new-style playwrights was Cao Yu (b. 1910). His major works — "Thunderstorm," "Sunrise," "Wilderness," and "Peking Man" — written between 1934 and 1940, have been widely read in China.
In the 1930s, theatrical productions performed by traveling Red Army cultural troupes in Communist - controlled areas were consciously used to promote party goals and political philosophy. By the 1940s theater was well-established in the Communist controlled areas and many other areas as well.

Chinese
Japanese Noh drama is a serious dramatic form that combines drama, music, and dance into a complete aesthetic performance experience. It developed in the 14th and 15th centuries and has its own instruments and performance techniques, which were often handed down from father to son. The performers were generally male (for both male and female roles), although female amateurs also perform Noh dramas. Noh drama was supported by the government, and particularly the military, many military commanders having their own troupes and sometimes performing themselves. It is a thriving performance art in Japan today.[1]
Kyogen is the comic counterpart to Noh drama. It concentrates more on dialogue and less on music, although Noh instrumentalists sometimes appear also in Kyogen.

Japanese

Main article: Theatre in India Indian
Except the sacred classical Indian musical theatre, the usual purpose of drama is as entertainment. However drama can also be used as an educational activity or for therapeutic purposes. It is even used for religious ministry.
It has a unique ability to allow us to play, allowing us to be another person or in a situation that we would not normally encounter such as, being a general in a war. This is what makes drama a useful way of teaching, learning, and growing as a person.
Drama has a holistic way of teaching people. Whether it be in a play or by partaking in a role-play situation, participants learn through interactions with others -- this allows participants to not only learn facts as they would from a book or in a classroom, but to enter the world of another person, to be allowed to explore how they feel about this situation or person, whether it be a war-torn town or the wolf in the Three Little Pigs. Every interaction with another character or situation gives a greater understanding of what is happening around us.
If you look at a small child when they are playing, they are enthralled with their own world, and through their actions, thoughts and the way they play they learn about themselves, others, and the world around them. Play allows them to act out new situations, try out new ways of doing things and by doing so learn.
When people grow up, the idea of play becomes less important and entering into the imagination becomes more difficult. However this is where drama has the unique and undeniable ability to help others learn and grow as individuals, as it allows them to play. Through playing we can once again try out situations, whether it be for a job interview by live action role-playing (aka. LARP), or just to think about new ideas, we can also gain confidence in ourselves and learn to trust others.
Role-play and can also play an important part in therapy, again entering the imagination and allowing ourselves to pretend and to think of things in other ways. Drama therapy is often considered an effective treatment for people who have had severe emotional and psychological problems, although it is important to note that the evidence to support therapeutic efficacy of Drama therapy is anecdotal rather than scientific.
In the theater, drama is a living, breathing art form. Actors are placed on stage, so that they can breathe life into the characters that have been created by the playwrights. In theater, the two main things to consider are: a) drama is driven by conflict and b) that drama is action. Action can be loosely defined as anything a character does with an objective behind it, whereas conflict can be briefly summarized as a clash between the motives of one or more characters.

Today
See also: Applied Drama
There are many forms of educational drama these all share one common goal, to create awareness or an understanding of an idea or issue. The following is a few examples of the main forms in which drama is used as a tool for education.
Theatre in education (TIE) is the typical image of drama, seen since the 1960s. Usually performed for youth groups, or schools by a drama group this form of theatre was usually a devised piece which used abstract ideas to communicate a message, it follows in the tradition of plays seen throughout history such as morality plays like Everyman. This form of theatre could also be compared to commedia del arte, and other such travelling forms of theatre.

Tool for education
These stories follow in the tradition of fables and folk tales, usually there is a lesson learned, and with some help from the audience the hero/heroine saves the day. This kind of play uses stock characters seen in masque and again commedia del arte, these characters include the villain (doctore), the clown/servant(Arlechino/Harlequin/buttons), the lovers etc. These plays usually have an emphasis on moral dilemmas, and good always triumphs over evil, this kind of play is also very entertaining making it a very effective way of reaching many people.

Pantomime
Unlike theatre in education, Drama in Education (DIE) is workshop-based, with groups creating their own scenarios, ideas and even subject matter through the use of drama and drama workshops. Sometimes this kind of work may lead to the creation of a play, or a piece of TIE or some other kind of means to show a result from the work. Drama in Education utilises skills used across the spectrum of dramatic activity, everything from teacher in role to normal theatrical conventions of audience and spectator. DIE is usually run in youth clubs, schools, community centres etc. DIE involves a high amount of participation by the group, and is therefore aimed for smaller groups of individuals.

Workshops

Banham, Martin, ed. 1998. The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521434378.
Duchartre, Pierre Louis. 1929. The Italian Comedy. Unabridged republication. New York: Dover, 1966. ISBN 0486216799.
Durant, Will & Ariel Durant. 1963 The Story of Civilization, Volume II: The Life of Greece. 11 vols. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Elam, Keir. 1980. The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama. New Accents Ser. London and New York: Methuen. ISBN 0416720609.
Gordon, Mel. 1983. Lazzi: The Comic Routines of the Commedia dell'Arte. New York: Performing Arts Journal Publications. ISBN 0933826699.
Johnstone, Keith. 1981. Impro: Improvisation and the Theatre Rev. ed. London: Methuen, 2007. ISBN 0713687010.
Spolin, Viola. 1967. Improvisation for the Theater. Third rev. ed. Evanston, Il.: Northwestern University Press, 1999. ISBN 081014008X.

2008-04-15T00:51:00.001+09:00

In communications, a code is a rule for converting a piece of information (for example, a letter, word, or phrase) into another form or representation, not necessarily of the same type. In communications and information processing, encoding is the process by which information from a source is converted into symbols to be communicated. Decoding is the reverse process, converting these code symbols back into information understandable by a receiver.
One reason for coding is to enable communication in places where ordinary spoken or written language is difficult or impossible. For example, a cable code replaces words (e.g., ship or invoice) into shorter words, allowing the same information to be sent with fewer characters, more quickly, and most important, less expensively. Another example is the use of semaphore flags, where the configuration of flags held by a signaller or the arms of a semaphore tower encodes parts of the message, typically individual letters and numbers. Another person standing a great distance away can interpret the flags and reproduce the words sent.
In the history of cryptography, codes were once common for ensuring the confidentiality of communications, although ciphers are now used instead. See code (cryptography).

Codes in communication used for brevity
Probably the most widely known data communications code (aka character representation) in use today is ASCII. In one or another (somewhat compatible) version, it is used by nearly all personal computers, terminals, printers, and other communication equipment. Its original version represents 128 characters with seven-bit binary numbers—that is, as a string of seven 1s and 0s. In ASCII a lowercase "a" is always 1100001, an uppercase "A" always 1000001, and so on. Successors to ASCII have included 8-bit characters (for letters of European languages and such things as card suit symbols), and in fullest flowering have included glyphs from essentially all of the world's writing systems (see Unicode and UTF-8).

An example: the ASCII code
Codes may also be used to represent data in a way more resistant to errors in transmission or storage. Such a "code" is called an error-correcting code, and works by including carefully crafted redundancy with the stored (or transmitted) data. Examples include Hamming codes, Reed–Solomon, Reed–Muller, Bose–Chaudhuri–Hochquenghem, Turbo, Golay, Goppa, Gallager Low-density parity-check codes, and space–time codes. Error detecting codes can be optimised to detect burst errors, or random errors.

2008-04-14T01:38:00.001+09:00

2008-04-13T02:15:00.000+09:00

The Meridian Mall is a large shopping complex in Dunedin, New Zealand designed by ASA Crone Architects, an Australian development company. It is the largest retail mall in the southern South Island, and one of the largest in the South Island as a whole.
The mall was constructed in 1995-1997 behind the former Arthur Barnett building in George Street which was designed by Edmund Anscombe (1874-1948) and completed in 1924.The new complex is a central retail hub, with Arthur Barnett as one of the two anchor tenants. It opened on 5 September 1997 with the final development costs close to NZ$50 million. Arthur Barnett sold the mall to ING Real Estate Australia in 2003, using the proceeds to retire debt.
The mall contains 50 shops spread over three levels, including a large food court on the bottom level. The two largest retailers are K-Mart, which occupies much of the top floor, and Arthur Barnett, on parts of the ground floor and the basement level. Above these three levels is a multi-storey car park. The mall is linked to the smaller Golden Centre Mall to the south, and through this will eventually link to the proposed Wall Street Mall, planned to occupy the remainder of the two-hectare central city block.
The neon advertising sign for Arthur Barnett that sits atop the mall is a prominent feature on the Dunedin skyline. Named Can't Stop, it features a small man trying to control a large horse, possibly a Clydesdale. It was designed by the New Zealand artist Heber Thompson for the 1924 building.

2008-04-12T00:22:00.001+09:00

Geography and environment
The name Napa was probably derived from the name given to a southern Nappan (meaning "Fairy Valley") Indian Village whose people shared the area with elk, deer, grizzlies and panthers for many centuries. At the time of the first recorded exploration into Napa Valley in 1823, the population consisted of hundreds of Indians. Padre Jose Altimura, founder of the mission at Sonoma, led the expedition. Spanish and Mexican control remained until the Bear Flag Revolt, and the valley became one of the first in California to be settled by American farmers, who started arriving in the 1830s.
When California was granted statehood in 1849, Napa Valley was in the Territory of California, District of Sonoma. In 1850 when counties were first organized, Napa became one of the original counties of California, and in 1851 the first courthouse was erected. By 1870 most of the Indians who had inhabited the valley were wiped out by smallpox and other diseases brought by white settlers. The few that remained finally were taken into Alexander Valley, where a few descendants now reside on government reservations.
The City of Napa was founded by Nathan Coombs in 1847. The townsite was surveyed by James M. Hudspeth on property Coombs had received from Nicolas Higuerra, holder of the original Spanish Grant. The first business establishment in the town was a saloon built by Harrison Pierce a former miller at the Bale Grist Mill. Napa's first general store was opened a year later in 1848 by Joseph P. Thompson. By 1850 the Dophin became the first steamship to navigate the Napa River in order to open another path of commerce.
In the mid 1850s, Napa Main Street rivaled that of many larger cities, with as many as 100 saddle horses tied to the fences on an average afternoon. Hotels were crowded, cash slugs and California coinage were plentiful. Saloons and gambling emporiums were numerous, but culture had also made its debut. The Lyceum movement established a facility and reading room and an agricultural society was started. Two newspapers began publication in the 1850s. The Napa Valley Register made its debut in 1853 and Alexander J. Cox published the Napa County Reporter for the first time on July 4, 1856.
It was the gold rush of the late 1850s that really built Napa City. After the first severe winter in the gold fields, miners sought refuge in the young city from snow, cold, floods and disease. A tent city was erected along Main Street. There was plenty of work in the valley for disillusioned miners. Many cattle ranches were maintained, and the lumber industry had mushroomed. Sawmills in the valley were in operation cutting up timber that was hauled by team to Napa City, then shipped out on the river to Benicia and San Francisco.
In 1858 the great silver rush began in Napa Valley, and miners eagerly flocked to the eastern hills. In the 1860s, mining carried on, in a large scale, with quicksilver mines operating in many areas of Napa County. The most noted mine was the Silverado Mine, near the summit of Mt. St. Helena. The mine was immortalized by Robert Louis Stevenson in his classic The Silverado Squatters.
In 1869 F.A. Sawyer established Sawyer Tanning Company in Napa and was joined in the business by his father B.F. Sawyer a year later. It went on to become the largest tannery west of the Mississippi River.
Napa was incorporated in 1872 and reincorporated again in 1874 as the City of Napa.
The Napa State Asylum for the Insane located just south of Napa received its first patients in 1876. The Napa Valley Opera House made its debut on February 13, 1880 with a production of Gilbert and Sullivan's HMS Pinafore.
Napa had become the primary business and economic center for the Napa Valley by the dawn of the 20th century. As agricultural and wine interests developed north of the city limits much of the light industry, banking, commercial and retail activity in the county evolved within the city of Napa and in earlier times along the Napa River through the historic downtown. Napa Glove Factory was established in 1903 and was the largest plant of its kind west of Chicago. In 1915 Edwin Pridham and Peter L. Jensen invented the moving-coil loudspeaker in their Napa workshop while working on an improvement for the telephone receiver. Pridham and Jensen went on to found the Magnavox Company in 1917
Even today the bulk of the county population lives in the City of Napa. The active economic development program has continued to support the wine and agricultural activities of the Valley to this day.

History
As of the census of 2006, there were 60,984 people, 20,001 households, and 12,453 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,234.5/km² (4,101.4/mi²). There were 27,776 housing units at an average density of 605.9/km² (1,569.5/mi²). The racial makeup of the city was 90.11% White, 0.21% African American, 7.32% Native American, 2.71% Asian, 1.08% Pacific Islander, 0.65% from other races, and 0.35% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 26.83% of the population.
There were 26,978 households out of which 32.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.7% were married couples living together, 11.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.5% were non-families. 26.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.64 and the average family size was 3.20.
In the city the population was spread out with 25.7% under the age of 18, 8.5% from 18 to 24, 29.6% from 25 to 44, 22.4% from 45 to 64, and 13.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 96.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.5 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $49,154, and the median income for a family was $58,788. Males had a median income of $41,046 versus $31,334 for females. The per capita income for the city was $23,642. About 6.1% of families and 8.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.4% of those under age 18 and 5.5% of those age 65 or over.

See also

Phil Bonifield, NASCAR driver
Robert Redford (part time), actor
Peter Menzel Photographer
Ray Manzarek The Doors keyboard player
Warren Brusstar former MLB player
Cristina García novelist
Jim Landis former MLB player
Sally Rosenbaum, nationally-collected and highly popular artist, former pupil of Elmer Bischoff.
Michael Chiarello, celebrity chef
Robin Williams, actor

2008-04-11T00:59:00.001+09:00

The Zambaccian Museum in Bucharest, Romania is a museum in the former home of Krikor Zambaccian (1889 –1962), an Armenian businessman and art collector. The museum was founded in 1947, closed by the Ceauşescu regime in 1977, and re-opened in 1992. It is now a branch of The National Museum of Art of Romania. Its collection includes works by Romanian artists—including a masterful portrait of Zambaccian himself by Corneliu Baba—and works by several French impressionists. It is located not far from Piaţa Dorobanţilor on a street now renamed after Zambaccian.
At the time the museum was founded (it opened to the public on May 19, 1947), the act of donation stated that it must be housed in Zambaccian's former home. However, after the 1977 Bucharest earthquake (which did no detectable damage to the museum building), the Romanian government created the Museum of Art Collections, consolidating many of the city's smaller museums (and a good number of expropriated private collections). The Zambaccian collection still resided at the Museum of Art Collections at the time of the Romanian Revolution of 1989; it was returned to its historic location in 1992.
Artists in the collection include Romanians Ion Andreescu, Corneliu Baba, Henri Catargi, Alexandru Ciucurencu, Horia Damian, Nicolae Dărăscu, Lucian Grigorescu, Nicolae Grigorescu, Iosif Iser, Ştefan Luchian, Samuel Mutzner, Alexandru Padina, Theodor Pallady, Gheorghe Petraşcu, Vasile Popescu, Camil Ressu, and Nicolae Tonitza, and French artists Pierre Bonnard, Paul Cézanne—the museum has the only Cézanne in Romania—, Jean-Baptiste Camille Corot, Eugène Delacroix, André Derain, Raoul Dufy, Albert Marquet, Henri Matisse, Camille Pissarro, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, and Maurice Utrillo, as well as pieces by two other artists who worked in France, the Spaniard Pablo Picasso and the Englishman Alfred Sisley. The courtyard features a large sculpture by Romanian sculptor Oscar Han; other sculptors with works in the collection are Constantin Brancusi, Cornel Medrea, Miliţa Pătraşcu, Dimitrie Paciurea, and Frederic Storck; Storck's own former home, also in the north end of Bucharest, is also now a museum.

2008-04-10T01:34:00.001+09:00

Lord Baltimore
George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore (c. 1580 – 15 April 1632) was an English politician and coloniser. He achieved domestic political success as a Member of Parliament and later Secretary of State under King James I, though he lost much of his political power after his support for a failed marriage alliance between Prince Charles and the Spanish royal family. Rather than continue in politics, he resigned all of his political offices in 1625 except for his position on the Privy Council and declared his Catholicism publicly. He was granted the title of 1st Baron Baltimore in the Irish peerage upon his resignation.
Calvert took an interest in the colonization of the New World, at first for commercial reasons and later to create a refuge for English Catholics. He became the proprietor of Avalon, the first sustained English settlement on the island of Newfoundland. Discouraged by the climate and the sufferings of the settlers there, Calvert looked for a more suitable spot further south and sought a new royal charter to settle the region that was to become the state of Maryland. Calvert died five weeks before the new charter was sealed, leaving the settlement of the Maryland colony to his son Cæcilius. Historians have long recognized George Calvert as the founder of Maryland, in spirit if not in fact.

Early life
Calvert named Cæcilius for Sir Robert Cecil,

Political success
In Parliament, a political crisis developed over the king's policy of seeking a Spanish wife for Charles, Prince of Wales, as part of a proposed alliance with the Hapsburgs.

Resignation and conversion
Calvert had long maintained an interest in the exploration and settlement of the New World, beginning with his investment of twenty-five pounds in the second Virginia Company in 1609, and a few months later a more substantial sum in the East India Company which he increased in 1614.

Avalon colony
Baltimore was by now more determined than ever to visit his colony in person. In May 1626, he wrote to Wentworth:
Aston's return to England in late 1626,

Baltimore in Avalon
In late September or October 1629, Baltimore arrived in Jamestown, where the Virginians, who suspected him of designs on some of their territory and vehemently opposed Catholicism, gave him a cool welcome and tendered him the oaths of supremacy and allegiance, which he refused to take—upon which they ordered him to leave.

Attempt to found a mid-Atlantic colony
In his will, written the day before he died, Baltimore beseeched his friends Wentworth and Cottington to act as guardians and supervisors to his son Cæcilius, who inherited the title of Lord Baltimore and the imminent grant of Maryland.

See also

2008-04-09T00:48:00.001+09:00

A baton is a stick that is used by conductors primarily to indicate the musical beat of a piece through horizontal and vertical movements. They are generally made of a light wood, fiberglass or carbon fiber which is tapered to a grip in a 'pear' shape, usually of cork or wood. Professional conductors often have them made to their own specifications based on their own physical demands and the nature of the performance: Sir Henry Wood and Herbert von Karajan are some examples

2008-04-08T02:34:00.001+09:00

In Norse mythology, Vígríðr is the giant plain where Ragnarök will be fought. It is described in Snorri Sturluson's Gylfaginning:
The Sons of Múspell shall go forth to that field which is called Vígrídr; thither shall come Fenris-Wolf also and the Midgard Serpent; then Loki and Hrymr shall come there also, and with him all the Rime-Giants. All the champions of Hel follow Loki; and the Sons of Múspell shall have a company by themselves, and it shall be very bright. The field Vígrídr is a hundred leagues wide each way. Gylfaginning 51, Brodeur's translation [1]
Snorri's source was presumably Vafþrúðnismál:
Vafthruthnir spake:

17. "Speak forth now, Gagnrath, | if there from the floor
Thou wouldst thy wisdom make known:
What name has the field | where in fight shall meet
Surt and the gracious gods?"
Othin spake:

18. "Vigrith is the field | where in fight shall meet
Surt and the gracious gods;
A hundred miles | each way does it measure.
And so are its boundaries set." Vafþrúðnismál 17-18, Bellows' translation [2]

2008-04-07T00:58:00.001+09:00

Westray Airport (IATA: WRY, ICAO: EGEW) is an airport located at Aikerness, on Westray in the Orkney Islands, Scotland. It is best known for being one of the two airports joined by the shortest scheduled flight in the world, a leg of Loganair's inter-island service, to Papa Westray Airport..

2008-04-06T01:05:00.001+09:00

This article is part of the series: Politics and government of Minnesota
The Governor of Minnesota is the chief executive of the U.S. state of Minnesota, leading the state's executive branch. Thirty-eight different people have been governors of the state, though historically there were also three governors of Minnesota Territory. Alexander Ramsey, the first territorial governor, also served as state governor several years later. State governors are elected to office by popular vote, but territorial governors were appointed to the office by the United States president. The current governor of Minnesota is Tim Pawlenty.
Like the U.S. President, the governor has veto power over bills passed by the Minnesota State Legislature. As in most states, but unlike the U.S. President, the governor can also make line-item vetoes, where specific provisions in bills can be stripped out while allowing the overall bill to be signed into law.
Since a 1958 amendment to the Minnesota Constitution governors are elected to four-year terms. Previously, they served two-year terms. The governor has a cabinet consisting of the leaders of various state departments. The governor appoints these department heads, who are usually called commissioners. Cabinet-level departments include:
The governor's residence is located in Saint Paul, at 1006 Summit Avenue.

State government
Governor - Tim Pawlenty

Lieutenant Governor - Carol Molnau
Attorney General - Lori Swanson
Secretary of State - Mark Ritchie
State Auditor - Rebecca Otto
State Treasurer - 1858-2003
State Cabinet
Legislature
- Senate
  - President of the Senate - James Metzen
    Majority Leader - Lawrence Pogemiller
    Minority Leader - David Senjem
    House of Representatives
    - Speaker - Margaret Anderson Kelliher
      Majority Leader - Anthony Sertich
      Minority Leader - Marty Seifert
      Court System
      - Supreme Court
        District Courts
        Court of Appeals
        Specialty Courts
        Political Parties
        
        Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party
        Republican Party
        Green Party
        Independence Party
        List of political parties in Minnesota
        National minor parties
        Counties
        Federal government
        
        United States Senate
        
        Amy Klobuchar (D)
        Norm Coleman (R)
        United States House
        
        Tim Walz (D)
        John Kline (R)
        Jim Ramstad (R)
        Betty McCollum (D)
        Keith Ellison (D)
        Michele Bachmann (R)
        Collin Peterson (D)
        Jim Oberstar (D)
        Department of Administration
        Department of Agriculture
        Department of Commerce
        Department of Corrections
        Department of Education
        Department of Employee Relations
        Department of Employment and Economic Development
        Department of Finance
        Department of Health
        Department of Human Rights
        Department of Human Services
        Iron Range Resources (Also known as the IRRB [pronounced "eye-triple-r-b"])
        Department of Labor and Industry
        Bureau of Mediation Services
        Metropolitan Council
        Department of Military Affairs
        Minnesota Higher Education Services Office
        Minnesota Housing Finance Agency
        Department of Natural Resources
        Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
        Department of Public Safety
        Department of Revenue
        Department of Transportation
        Department of Veterans Affairs See also
        
        List of Governors of Minnesota
        List of Minnesota gubernatorial elections
        Lieutenant Governor of Minnesota
        List of Lieutenant Governors of Minnesota
        Minnesota Secretary of State
        Minnesota Attorney General
        Minnesota State Auditor
        Minnesota State Treasurer (office abolished January 6, 2003)
        Politics of Minnesota

2008-04-05T01:20:00.001+09:00

The League of Gentlemen is a quartet of British comedy writer/performers, formed in 1995 by Jeremy Dyson, Mark Gatiss, Steve Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith. The television program for which they are best known, although officially labelled a sitcom, was initially more sketch-based, linked together by their common setting: the fictional village of Royston Vasey, set somewhere in the north of England. The first series aired on BBC Two in 1999, and follows the lives of dozens of the town's bizarre inhabitants, played by Gatiss, Pemberton and Shearsmith in a number of different guises and make-up.

Past and future
The League of Gentlemen is primarily a sitcom, albeit an unusual one. It consists of a series of sketches which come together to form an overall story. Since all the action takes place, and nearly all the characters live, in the same village, there is much overlap, and the events and characters of one story play a part in the lives of others, much as in a soap opera. There is usually a main plot to which the minor stories tend to be tenuously connected.

Series

Main article: List of The League of Gentlemen episodes Episode Guide

Main article: List of characters in The League of Gentlemen Characters
The majority of the inhabitants of the village — male and female — are played by Reece Shearsmith, Steve Pemberton, and Mark Gatiss, and the script was written by these three, along with Jeremy Dyson. Dyson, not an actor like the others, appears only in cameo roles. As there are usually only three actors on screen at any one time, the different characters mostly play out their own stories in several serialised sketches, rarely crossing into each others' storylines. Only rarely do actors "meet themselves". Exceptions include Papa Lazarou facing the Reverend Bernice in the Christmas Special (both Reece Shearsmith), Alvin Steele buying food from Iris at a supermarket checkout in Series 2 (both Mark Gatiss). The idea is taken further in the The League of Gentlemen's Apocalypse, when the characters meet the actors (especially when Herr Lipp meets his creator, Steve Pemberton).

Actors
The show has a great deal of dark humour, with many of the scenes inspired by horror films (the policeman who visits Tubbs and Edward in the first series is a reference to The Wicker Man), documentaries (Dr Carlton came from a programme called "Change of Sex" which featured a "monstrously unsympathetic" doctor) and personal experience (Legz Akimbo came from the writers' experiences in amateur theatre, while Pauline Campbell-Jones came from Reece Shearsmith's own Restart officer). Even the village sign is somewhat ominous, reading, in similar style to many hundreds of such signs throughout the UK, "Welcome to Royston Vasey. You'll never leave." In real life, Royston Vasey is the given name of comedian Roy 'Chubby' Brown, who makes several cameo appearances as the town's foulmouthed mayor.
It is notable that each series since the first has featured a progressively smaller proportion of jokes, focusing more on horror and drama. The third series in particular is notable for its absence of humour in many scenes. The League even comment on the DVD commentary that one scene involving Pauline and Ross was initially written without any jokes at all, so one was tacked on afterwards when they realised they had forgotten about it.
The programme has notably high production values, with numerous detailed sets and complex character makeup, with particular attention paid to lighting and cinematography. The series is filmed on high-definition video tape, and post-processed to give it a high-quality film grain effect. A number of outdoor scenes (particularly the varied outdoor shots of the village shop and the intricate opening pan over the village) rival major motion pictures in terms of cinematography.
The series and film were directed by Steve Bendelack and the theme tune composed by The Divine Comedy's Joby Talbot. For the third series, Talbot revamped the theme tune, giving it a funkier feel.

Atmosphere
The series has garnered considerable critical acclaim, as well as a BAFTA award, a Royal Television Society award and the Golden Rose of Montreux. In 2003, its creators were listed in The Observer as among the 50 funniest acts in British comedy. In 2004 The Radio Times listed Papa Lazarou as the 8th funniest comedy sketch of all time (despite the fact that Papa Lazarou is a character rather than a sketch).
Despite substantial critical acclaim, it has been branded with cult status and has never achieved, or certainly never maintained, broad popularity. Despite being far older, the program is sometimes referred to as 'The Thinking Man's Little Britain'.

Reaction

A Local Book for Local People (2000) London: 4th Estate, ISBN 1-84115-346-X
The League of Gentlemen: Scripts and That (2003) London: BBC Worldwide, ISBN 0-563-48775-5
The League of Gentlemen's Book of Precious Things (2007) London: Prion, ISBN 1-853-75621-0 Books

Other star guest appearances include Christopher Eccleston in the last episode of series 3 and Roy 'Chubby' Brown, playing the Mayor of Royston Vasey.
All three performing members of The League (Gatiss, Pemberton & Shearsmith) acted in different roles in the 1998 BBC television adaptation of Mark Taverner's satire In the Red.
There is at least one horror movie reference in every episode.
The troupe is friends with Edgar Wright, and cast members have constantly overlapped between their projects. League members appear in Spaced and Shaun of the Dead (and Gatiss appears uncredited in Wright's trailer for Grindhouse as admitted by Wright[1]). Conversely, Simon Pegg appeared in The League of Gentlemen's Apocalypse.
While Joby Talbot wrote the score for the television series, the eccentric theme music to the radio series On the Town with the League of Gentlemen was Michael Nyman's piece An Eye for Optical Theory from the film The Draughtsman's Contract. Links to real life

2008-04-04T00:03:00.001+09:00

Forms of subject
The subject of a sentence is sometimes defined as the argument that generally refers to the origin of the action or the undergoer of the state shown by the predicate. This is a semantic definition. Such a definition is problematic for several reasons. In languages where a passive voice exists, the subject of a passive verb may be the target or result of the action. For example:
John was arrested.
The police arrested John.
In the first sentence (which is in the passive voice), John is the subject, while in the second sentence (active voice) the police is the subject and John is the object. Similarly, some verbs can be used both as transitive and as intransitive. An example is the English verb break:
John broke the chain.
The chain broke.
In the first sentence, the chain is the object, while in the second, it is the subject. But the relation of the chain to the event described by the sentence is the same in the two cases. This can be seen by considering the fact that the two sentences can be used to describe the same situation: Whenever the first sentence is true, the second one will be true, as well.
Some linguistic theories require every language to have a category of subject. However, there is no such category that is consistent for all languages.
In many languages, the subject triggers agreement morphology on the verb or auxiliary of a sentence. For example, in English one uses the form has for sentences with a singular subject, and have in sentences with a plural subject. This is a morphosyntactic definition.
She has left.
They have left.
This definition works fairly well for English, except in the case of verbs that do not agree. Examples of English verbs that never carry agreement include the modals must, can, will, might, may. The subject in English can also be identified by the fact that the interrogative clause is formed by inverting the normal subject–verb word order to verb–subject. Thus:
You won't call me.
Won't you call me?
In many languages that mark case on the arguments of a verb, the topic of the conversation tends to be placed in the nominative case, and this combination is termed the subject. Such a morphological definition is inherited from classical times. However, sometimes the subject may carry other cases, like the dative, so this definition is not perfect. Not all languages have a nominative case, and for many of these this concept of subject does not work at all: in ergative-absolutive languages neither core case, absolutive or ergative, carries the topic the way the nominative does in many nominative-accusative languages. Different theoretical traditions have treated both as subject at different times, but with no agreement.
In languages that lack verb agreement and morphological case marking, one must define the nominative case (if there is one) in terms of word order. For example, in Mainland Scandinavian (Norwegian, Swedish and Danish) the subject occurs either right in front of the tensed verb of a sentence, or follows the verb but precedes the object.
Finally, the subject tends to be the topic of the proposition. In languages with no other means to mark a topic, making an object into a subject by using passivization (I did it → it was done) is a way to topicalize said object. (See also topic-prominent languages.)
Some languages can omit the subject if it is recoverable from the context of utterance (null subject language). Many of these languages have rich subject-verb agreement (e. g. Italian) while others have no subject-verb agreement at all (Mandarin Chinese). The term pro-drop language is used for languages where pronouns can be omitted more generally, i.e. even when they are not a subject.
In some languages, like English or French, sentences must have a syntactical subject, either a noun or noun phrase, or a pronoun, even if the sentences do not have a semantic subject. This is why verbs like rain must carry a "subject" such as it, even if nothing is actually "doing" the raining. It is in this case an expletive and a dummy pronoun.

Subject orientation
It is generally assumed that the Noun Phrase occurring with the Verb Phrase, constituting a sentence, is a subject. Copular sentences challenge this view. In a particular class of copular sentences, called "inverse copular sentences", the noun phrase which occurs with the verb phrase plays the role of predicate, occupying the position which is canonically reserved for subjects, and the subject is embedded in the verb phrase (cf. copula). This can be exemplified by pairs of sentences like these pictures of the wall are the cause of the riot (where the preverbal Noun Phrase plays the role of subject and the post-verbal one plays the role of predicate) vs the cause of the riot is these pictures of the wall (where the order is inverse). This has far reaching consequences, affecting for example the theory of expletive subjects and unaccusative verbs (cf. Moro 1997 and Hale - Keyser 2003 and references cited there).

2008-04-03T01:35:00.001+09:00

For other places with this name, see Geneva.
Geneva is a city in Ontario County, New York, USA. The population was 13,617 at the 2000 census. Some claim it is named after the city and canton of Geneva in Switzerland. Others believe the name came from confusion over the letters in the word "Seneca" written in cursive.
The City of Geneva is located by the eastern border of the county and is inside the Town of Geneva. The city claims to be the "Lake Trout Capital of the World."

History

Elizabeth Blackwell, the first woman to become qualified as a medical doctor in the United States, studied here, graduating from the medical school at what was then Geneva College in 1849.
Red Jacket, the Seneca political leader was reportedly born near Geneva.
Gym Class Heroes, four member hip-hop/indie rock band.
Lauren Holly, actress.
Arudou Debito/Dave Aldwinckle, author and human rights activist in Japan.
Arthur Dove, artist.
Christine Lavin folk singer.
Susan Brind Morrow author of The Names of Things (1998), Of Wolves and Honey (2004)
Cynthia DeFelice, author
Warren Hunting Smith, author
Scott LaFaro, Beacon for Jazz Bassists, Member of the Bill Evans Trio Notable natives
Geneva lies at the northern end of the Seneca Lake, in the Finger Lakes region, the largest wine-producing area in New York State. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 15.2 km² (5.8 mi²). 11.0 km² (4.3 mi²) of it is land and 4.1 km² (1.6 mi²) of it (27.18%) is water.
Geneva on east-west US Route 20 conjoined with New York State Route 5. New York State Route 14 is a north-south highway through the city.

Education

North Street School is a public elementary school that teaches grades K-5 in the Geneva School District. Its enrollment is about 551 students. The current principal is Bill Rotenberg. Public schools

Moodie's Children's Hours School is a private school that teaches grades PreK-K in the Geneva School District. Its enrollment is about 27 students. The previous principal was the Rev. Joseph Grasso until his sudden resignation in July 2007. A replacement has not been named. Private schools

Hobart and William Smith Colleges, the successor institution to Geneva College.
The New York State Agricultural Experiment Station of Cornell University's College of Agriculture and Life Sciences.
Finger Lakes Community College has a campus in Geneva. Demographics
One of the major industries in and around Geneva is winemaking. The area is becoming increasingly popular for agritourism: there are over 100 wineries in the Finger Lakes Region, and the Seneca Lake Wine Trail provides easy access to many of these from Geneva. As Geneva grows as a tourist destination so do the number of rooms available.

2008-04-02T00:19:00.001+09:00

The Signal Corps in the American Civil War comprised two organizations: the U.S. Army Signal Corps, which began with the appointment of Major Albert J. Myer as its first signal officer just before the war and remains an entity to this day, and the Confederate States Army Signal Corps, a much smaller group of officers and men, using similar organizations and techniques as their Union opponents. Both accomplished tactical and strategic communications for the warring armies, including electromagnetic telegraphy and aerial telegraphy ("wig-wag" signaling). Although both services had an implicit mission of battlefield observation, intelligence gathering, and artillery fire direction from their elevated signal stations, the Confederate Signal Corps also included an explicit espionage function.
The Union Signal Corps, although effective on the battlefield, suffered from political disputes in Washington, D.C., particularly in its rivalry with the civilian-led U.S. Military Telegraph Service. Myer was relieved of his duties as chief signal officer by Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton for his attempts to control all electromagnetic telegraphy within the Signal Corps. He was not restored to his role as chief signal officer until after the war.

U.S. Army (Union) Signal Corps
The "father" of the U.S. Army Signal Corps was Major Albert J. Myer, an Army surgeon with an interest in communications by sign language for the deaf and then in signaling over long distances with lightweight and simple to use equipment. He invented a signaling system using a flag (or a kerosene torch for nighttime use) that is known as wig-wag signaling, or aerial telegraphy. Unlike semaphore flag signaling, which employed two flags, wig-wag required only one, using a binary code to represent each letter of the alphabet or digit. Myer was serving at Fort Duncan, Texas, in 1856 when he wrote to Secretary of War Jefferson Davis and offered his signaling system to the War Department. Although the chief engineer of the Army, Colonel Joseph G. Totten, supported Myer's proposal, it did not include specific technical details and Davis rejected it. When John B. Floyd replaced Davis as secretary of war in 1857, Totten reintroduced Myer's proposal, and in March 1859, a board of examination was formed in Washington, D.C. The board, presided over by Lt. Col. Robert E. Lee, was not enthusiastic about the proposal, judging it suitable only as a secondary means of communications over short distances, but it did recommend further testing.

First chief signal officer
Upon the outbreak of war, Myer returned to Washington and addressed the problem of having no signal personnel. His only option was to persuade officers to be detailed from other assignments, which was not considered satisfactory by Myer or the officers themselves, who feared loss of promotion opportunities. He submitted draft legislation to Secretary of War Simon Cameron in August 1861, proposing that a Signal Corps be established with himself, seven assistant signal officers, 40 warrant officers, and 40 signal artificers to serve as line builders and repairmen. He intended that each division of the Army, which he assumed would eventually comprise 500,000 men, would have dedicated aerial and electromagnetic telegraphy support. Congress adjourned without considering the legislation. That fall, Myer, who in addition to being chief signal officer for the Army, served as chief signal officer of the newly formed Army of the Potomac, set up training facilities for detailed officers and men in Fort Monroe and at Red Hill, Georgetown, Washington, D.C. His latter training camp remained in operation through the Peninsula Campaign and the rest of 1862, a period in which he continued to lobby with Congress and the Secretary of War, now Edwin M. Stanton, to establish a permanent corps.

War organization
Edward P. Alexander, Myer's assistant in testing the wig-wag signaling system, resigned his U.S. Army commission on May 1, 1861, to join the Confederate Army as a captain of engineers. While organizing and training new recruits to form a Confederate signal service, he was ordered to report to Brig. Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard at Manassas Junction, Virginia. He became the chief engineer and signal officer of the (Confederate) Army of the Potomac on June 3.

Confederate Signal Corps

Signal equipment and techniques
Wig-wag signaling was performed during daylight with a single flag tied to a hickory staff constructed in four-foot jointed sections. Flags were generally made of cotton, linen, or another lightweight fabric and were issued in the following sizes:
Codes for the alphabet, digits, and some special characters were as follows for the Union Signal Corps:
Waving the flag continuously from left to right was used to attract attention and to indicate that signaling was about to start. Other special sequences of digits were:

Wave the flag from the vertical position to the ground at the left of the flagman, returning immediately to the vertical position.
Wave the flag from the vertical position to the ground at the right of the flagman, returning immediately to the vertical position.
Wave the flag from the ground on the right to the ground on the left of the flagman, returning immediately to the vertical position. The signal "3" always followed a "2" or "4."
Wave the flag from the ground on the left to the ground on the right of the flagman, returning immediately to the vertical position. The signal "4" always followed a "1" or "3."
Wave the flag directly in front of the flagman to the ground, returning immediately to the vertical position. Wig-wag signaling
Telegraph trains were introduced by Myer to support telegraphy for mobile operations. The horse-drawn wagons carried the telegraph sets and supplies such as reels of insulated copper wire and iron lances, for stringing temporary field lines, a practice called "flying telegraph lines." Each train consisted of two wagons, equipped with 5 miles of wire and a telegraph instrument. The first model train was constructed by Henry J. Rogers, a telegraphic engineer from New York City who had worked with Samuel F.B. Morse in building the first commercial telegraph line between Washington and Baltimore in 1844. Rogers's original telegraph instrument for the train replaced the traditional sending key and sound receiver with a dial indicator, a circular index plate bearing the letters of the alphabet and a pointer that turned to the letter to be transmitted. A similar pointer spelled out the message at the receiving end. Rogers provided a galvanic battery that eliminated the danger of acid spills. This equipment eliminated the need for skilled operators who had to be trained in Morse code. Field trials in February 1862 found that it worked satisfactorily over a test circuit of 2 miles of wire. A board of three signal officers recommended that such a train would be of great use as an auxiliary to permanent telegraph lines.

Telegraph train and the Beardslee telegraph
Since aerial telegraphy was sometimes conducted within the clear sight of the enemy, security was a major problem. The Signal Corps introduced a cipher disc, a simple device that allowed the encryption of text. Two concentric discs were inscribed with letters and their numerical equivalents. The sending and receiving party had to agree on the specific alignment between the two discs, ensuring that both parties had identical alignment. To encipher a message, the signal officer selected an "adjustment letter" on the inner disc and then made this letter correspond with a preselected numerical code or "key number" on the outer disc. The signal officer would typically give the key numbers to the flagmen without revealing the plain text version of the message. Although this method of encryption was primitive by modern standards, there is no record that the Confederates ever deciphered a Union message that had been processed in this manner. A more complex system in which four concentric discs were used was invented by Sergeant Francis M. Metcalf and modified by Captain Lemuel B. Norton, but it did not receive widespread adoption.

Ciphers

First Bull Run
At the Battle of Fredericksburg in December 1862, significant use of the Beardslee telegraph made it possible for Maj. Gen. Ambrose E. Burnside to communicate with the Army through the fog and smoke from the burning town. On December 13, the main day of the battle, signal corpsmen extended a line across the Rappahannock River into the town of Fredericksburg while under fire and Burnside was able to communicate with both of his grand division commanders and his supply base, 7.5 miles away.

Fredericksburg
During the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863, the performance of the Beardslee telegraph was so poor that Albert Myer soon decided to replace it. The campaign got off to a bad start because the chief signal officer of the Army of the Potomac, Captain Samuel T. Cushing, was kept in the dark about the plans of Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker and he could not arrange his signal assets in advance. As the Army advanced, Cushing had insufficient wire on hand and was forced to use untested wire that had been left in the field, supported by iron lances, since Fredericksburg. On April 29, as the Army prepared to cross the Rapidan River, the Beardslee telegraph did not work, probably due to excessive wire length. Captain Frederick E. Beardslee, son of the inventor, was sent to make repairs. He found that the machine had been hit by lightning and was operating erratically. That evening a telegraph reached headquarters from the Ford on the Rapidan at 10:30 p.m., but it was marked (incorrectly) as originating at 5:30 p.m. Maj. Gen. Daniel Butterfield, Chief of Staff of the Army of the Potomac, told Cushing that he was not going to wake the commanding general for any telegram that was five hours late; his repose was "worth more than the commissions of a dozen signal officers." The inadequate wires and the unreliable telegraph caused persistent problems and kept General Hooker isolated from his forces in the Wilderness. On May 1, operators of the U.S. Military Telegraph Service were ordered to replace the Signal Corps Beardslee operators.

Chancellorsville
The Battle of Gettysburg featured the Union Signal Corps in its role of observing the battlefield. The chief signal officer of the Army of the Potomac, Captain Lemuel B. Norton, had field telegraph trains at his disposal, but did not deploy them. On July 1, 1863, a Union signal officer, Lt. Aaron B. Jerome, ascended the cupola of the Lutheran Theological Seminary and the courthouse steeple to observe the enemy's approach and reported to Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard. On July 2, the Confederate corps under Lt. Gen. James Longstreet attempted to maneuver into position for an attack on the Union left flank. They were forced into a lengthy counter march, delaying their attack, when they spotted the presence of the Union signal station on Little Round Top mountain and knew that their approach would be reported. During the Confederate assault, the fighting was so heavy that the signal station had to be abandoned until the following day. A plaque commemorating the U.S. Army Signal Corps' contribution to the battle is mounted today on a boulder near the peak of Little Round Top. On July 3, before Pickett's Charge, artillery fire against the Union line was so intense that the signalmen could not use their flags. Captain Edward C. Pierce, a signal officer attached to the VI Corps, acted as a mounted courier to Maj. Gen. George G. Meade's headquarters, despite warnings that he would never make it alive through the firing.

See also

Alexander, Edward P., and Gallagher, Gary W. (editor), Fighting for the Confederacy: The Personal Recollections of General Edward Porter Alexander, University of North Carolina Press, 1989, ISBN 0-8078-4722-4.
Brown, J. Willard, The Signal Corps, U.S.A. in the War of the Rebellion, U.S. Veteran Signal Corps Association, 1896, (reprinted by Arno Press, 1974), ISBN 0-405-06036-X.
Cameron, Bill, "Albert James Myer", Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History, Heidler, David S., and Heidler, Jeanne T., eds., W. W. Norton & Company, 2000, ISBN 0-393-04758-X.
Eicher, John H., and Eicher, David J., Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8047-3641-3.
Heidler, David S., and Heidler, Jeanne T., "Edward Porter Alexander", Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History, Heidler, David S., and Heidler, Jeanne T., eds., W. W. Norton & Company, 2000, ISBN 0-393-04758-X.
Raines, Rebecca Robbins, Getting the Message Through: A Branch History of the U.S. Army Signal Corps, Army Historical Series, Center of Military History, United States Army, 1996, ISBN 0-16-045351-8.
Scheips, Paul J., "Union Signal Communications: Innovation and Conflict", Civil War History, Vol. IX, No. 4 (December 1963).
Sears, Stephen W., Chancellorsville, Houghton Mifflin, 1996, ISBN 0-395-87744-X.

2008-03-30T01:03:00.001+09:00

Ralph Linton (Philadelphia, 27 February 1893 - New Haven, 24 December 1953) was one of the best-known American anthropologists of the mid-twentieth century, and is particularly remembered for his works The Study of Man (1936) and The Tree of Culture (1955). One of Linton's major contributions to anthropology was finding a distinction between status and role.
Linton was born into a family of Quaker restaurant entrepreneurs in Philadelphia in 1893 and entered Swarthmore College in 1911. He was an indifferent student and resisted his father's pressures to prepare himself for the life of a professional. He grew interested in archaeology after participating in a field school in the southwest and took a year off of his studies to participate in another archaeological excavation in Guatemala. Having found a strong focus he graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1915.
Although Linton became a prominent anthropologist, his graduate education took place largely at the periphery of the discipline. He attended the University of Pennsylvania, where he earned his masters degree studying with Frank Speck while undertaking additional archaeological field work in New Jersey and New Mexico. He was admitted to a Ph.D. program at Columbia University thereafter, but did not become close to Franz Boas, the doyen of anthropology in that era. When America entered World War I, Linton enlisted and served in France. Shortly after his return to the United States, he transferred from Columbia to Harvard, where he studied with Earnest Hooton, Alfred Tozzer, and Roland Dixon.
After a year of classes at Harvard, Linton proceeded to do more fieldwork, first Mesa Verde and then as a member of a research team lead by E.S.C. Handy under the auspices of the Bishop Museum to the Marquesas. While in the Pacific, his focus shifted from archaeology to cultural anthropology, although he would retain a keen interest in material culture and 'primitive' art throughout his life. He returned from the Marquesas in 1922 and eventually received his Ph.D. from Harvard in 1925.
Linton used his Harvard connections to secure a position at the Field Museum of Chicago after his return from the Marquesas. His official position was as Curator of American Indian materials. He continued working on digs in Ohio which he had first begun as a graduate student, but also began working through the museum's archival material on the Pawnee and published data collected by others in a series of articles and museum bulletins. While at the Field Museum he worked with illustrator and future children's book artist and author Holling Clancy Holling. Between 1925 and 1927, Linton undertook an extensive collecting trip to Madagascar for the field museum, exploring the western end of the Austronesian diaspora after having studied the eastern end of this culture in the Marquesas. He did his own fieldwork there as well, and the book that resulted, The Tanala: A Hill Tribe of Madagascar (1933), was the most detailed ethnography he would publish.
On his return to the United States, Linton took a position at the University of Wisconsin, where the Department of Sociology had expanded to include an anthropology unit. Linton thus served as the beginning of what would later become a separate department. Several of his students went on to become important anthropologists, such as Clyde Kluckhohn, Marvin Opler, and Sol Tax. Up to this point, Linton had been primarily a researcher in a rather romantic vein, and his years at Wisconsin were the period in which he developed his ability to teach and publish as a theoretician. This fact, combined with his penchant for popular writing and his intellectual encounter with Radcliffe-Brown (then at the University of Chicago), led to the publication of his textbook The Study of Man (1936). It was also during this period that he married this third wife, Adelin Hohlfeld, who worked as his secretary and editor as well as his collaborator -- many of the popular pieces published jointly by them (such as Halloween Through Twenty Centuries) were in fact entirely written by Adelin Hohlfield.
The Study of Man established Linton as one of anthropology's premier theorists, particularly amongst sociologists who worked outside of the Boasian mainstream. As a result, Linton was invited to succeed Boas as the chair of the department anthropology at Columbia in 1937. His appointment was contentious -- the Boasian heir-apparent was Ruth Benedict and Linton's appointment by the president met considerable resistance within the department. Throughout this early period Linton became interested in the problem of acculturation, working with Robert Redfield and Melville Herskovits on a prestigious Social Science Research Council subcommittee of the Committee on Personality and Culture. The result was a seminal jointly-authored piece entitled Memorandum for the Study of Acculturation (1936). Linton also obtained money from the Works Progress Administration for students to produce work which studied acculturation. The volume Acculturation in Seven American Indian Tribes is an example of the work in this period, and Linton's contributions to the volume remain his most influential writings on acculturation. Linton's interest in culture and personality also expressed itself in the form of a seminar he organized with Abraham Kardiner at the New York Psychoanalytic Institute.
When World War II broke out, Linton became involved in war-planning and his thoughts on the war and the role of the United States (and American Anthropology) could be seen in several works of the post-war period, most notably The Science of Man in the World Crisis (1945) and Most of the World. It was during the war that Linton also undertook a long trip to South America, where he experienced a coronary occlusion that left him in precarious health.
After the war Linton moved to Yale University, a center for anthropologists such as George Murdock who had collaborated with the US government. He taught there from 1946 to 1953, where continued to publish on culture and personality. It was during this period that he also began writing The Tree of Culture, an ambitious global overview of human culture. He died of complications relating to his trip in South America on Christmas Eve, 1953. His wife completed The Tree of Culture which went on to become a popular textbook.

2008-03-29T02:28:00.001+09:00

Thomas Henry Huxley FRS (4 May 1825 Ealing – 29 June 1895 Eastbourne, Sussex) was an English biologist, known as "Darwin's Bulldog" for his advocacy of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution.
Huxley's famous 1860 debate with the Lord Bishop of Oxford, Samuel Wilberforce, was a key moment in the wider acceptance of evolution, and in his own career. Wilberforce was coached by Richard Owen, against whom Huxley also debated on whether man was closely related to apes. Huxley was slow to accept some of Darwin's ideas, such as gradualism, and was undecided about natural selection, but despite this he was wholehearted in his public support of Darwin. He was instrumental in developing scientific education in Britain, and fought against the more extreme versions of religious tradition.
Huxley used the term 'agnostic' to describe his own views on religion, a term whose use has continued to the present day, and which throws light on his demanding criteria for proof in science (see Thomas Henry Huxley and agnosticism).
Huxley had little schooling, and taught himself almost everything he knew. Remarkably, he became perhaps the finest comparative anatomist of the second half of the nineteenth century. He worked first on invertebrates, clarifying the relationships between groups that were previously little understood. Later, he worked more on vertebrates, especially on the relationship between man and the apes. Another of his important conclusions was that birds evolved from dinosaurs, namely, small carnivorous theropods. This view is widely held today.
The tendency has been for this fine anatomical work to be overshadowed by his energetic controversial activity in favour of evolution, and by his extensive public work on scientific education, both of which had significant effect on society in Britain and elsewhere.

Biography
Huxley, born in Ealing, a small village in Middlesex (now a prosperous suburb in west London), was the second youngest of eight children of George Huxley, a maths teacher at Ealing School until it closed, putting the family into financial difficulties. Like some other British scientists of the nineteenth century (Alfred Russel Wallace comes to mind) Huxley was brought up in a literate middle-class family which became short of money. As a result he left school at 10, after only two years of formal schooling.
Despite this unenviable start, Huxley possessed the most remarkable determination. He became one of the great autodidacts of the nineteenth century (again, like Wallace). He made himself an expert first on invertebrates, and later on vertebrates, all self-taught. He was skilled in drawing, and did many of the illustrations for his publications on marine invertebrates. In his teens he taught himself German, eventually becoming fluent and used by Charles Darwin as a translator of scientific material in German. Later he learnt Latin and enough Greek to read Aristotle in the original. In his debates and writing on science and religion his grasp of theology was better than most of his clerical opponents. So, a boy who left school at ten became one of the most knowledgeable men in Britain.

Early life
Aged 20, Huxley was too young to apply to the Royal College of Surgeons for a licence to practice, yet he was 'deep in debt'.

Voyage of the Rattlesnake
Huxley effectively resigned from the navy (by refusing to return to active service) and, in July 1854, he became Professor of Natural History at the Royal School of Mines and naturalist to the Geological Survey in the following year. In addition, he was Fullerian Professor at the Royal Institution 1855–58 and 1865–67; Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons 1863–69; President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science 1869–1870; and, later, President of the Royal Society 1883–85; and Inspector of Fisheries 1881–85.
The thirty-one years during which Huxley occupied the chair of natural history at the Royal School of Mines included work on vertebrate palaeontology and on many projects to advance the place of science in British life.

Later life
Among Huxley's most important work in this period was his continuing investigation of the relationship of man to other animals. For nearly a decade his research and lecturing was directed mainly to this topic, which led him directly into a clash with Richard Owen, a man widely disliked for his behaviour whilst also being admired for his capability. This struggle was to culminate in some severe defeats for the older man. Huxley's Croonian Lecture, delivered before the Royal Society in 1858 on The Theory of the Vertebrate Skull was the start. In this, he rejected Owen's view that the bones of the skull and the spine were homologous, an opinion previously held by Goethe and Lorenz Oken.
His classification of human races is fourfold: 1 Europeans 2 Mongolian 3 Negro (or Ethiopean) 4 Australian; each of these categories being broken down further into sub-sets. In fact all such anthropological classifications are put in the shade by our modern discovery that the genetic diversity of man in Africa is greater than exists in the rest of mankind put together. [see also Wiki page on race]

Vertebrate palaeontology
From 1870 onwards, Huxley was to some extent drawn away from scientific research by the claims of public duty. From 1862 to 1884 he served on eight Royal Commissions. From 1871 to 1880 he was a Secretary of the Royal Society and from 1883 to 1885 he was President. He was President of the Geological Society from 1868-1870. In 1870, he was President of the British Association at Liverpool and, in the same year was elected a member of the newly-constituted London School Board. He was made a Privy Councillor in 1892.
He was awarded the highest honours then open to British men of science: the Royal Society awarded him the Royal Medal in 1852, the Copley Medal in 1888 and the Darwin Medal in 1894; the Geological Society awarded him the Wollaston Medal in 1876; the Linnean Society awarded him the Linnean Medal in 1890. There were many other elections and appointments to eminent scientific bodies; these and his many academic awards are listed in the Life and Letters. He turned down many other appointments, notably the Linacre chair in zoology at Oxford and the Mastership of University College, Oxford. Balfour died whilst climbing in the Alps; he had just been appointed to a chair at Cambridge.

Public duties and awards
Huxley was originally not persuaded of 'development theory' as evolution was once called. We can see that in his savage review The authorship of this latter review was not known for sure until Wilberforce's son wrote his biography. So it can be said that, just as Darwin groomed Huxley, so Owen groomed Wilberforce; and both the proxies fought public battles on behalf of their principals as much as themselves.
chromolithograph by 'Ape' (Pellegrini)

Darwin's bulldog
Famously, Huxley responded to Wilberforce in the debate at the British Association meeting, on Saturday 30th June 1860 at the Oxford University Museum. He was joined at the debate by his and Darwin's friends Hooker and Lubbock, and they were opposed by the Lord Bishop of Oxford, Samuel Wilberforce, and Robert FitzRoy, the captain of HMS Beagle. The chair for this debate was Darwins's former botany tutor John Stevens Henslow.
Wilberforce had a track record against evolution as far back as the previous Oxford B.A. meeting in 1847 when he attacked Chambers' Vestiges. For the more challenging task of opposing the Origin, and the implication that man descended from apes (theme continued from the previous day) he had been assiduously coached by Richard Owen—Owen stayed with him the night before the debate (Desmond & Moore p493). On the day Wilberforce repeated some of the arguments from his Quarterly Review article (written but not yet published), then ventured onto slippery ground. His famous jibe at Huxley (as to whether H. was descended from an ape on his mother's side or his father's side) was probably unplanned, and certainly unwise. Huxley's reply to the effect that he would rather be descended from an ape than a man who misused his great talents—the exact wording is not certain—was widely recounted in pamphlets and a spoof play.
Other friends of Darwin spoke also; Hooker especially thought he had made the best points. The general view was and still is that Huxley got the better of the exchange but there are dissenting voices, and Wilberforce himself thought he had done quite well. In the absence of a verbatim report these differing perceptions cannot be judged fairly; Huxley wrote a detailed account for Darwin, a letter which does not survive.

Debate with Wilberforce
Although Darwin did not publish his Descent of Man until 1871, the general debate on this topic had started years before. A key event occurred in 1857 when Richard Owen presented (to the Linnean Society) his view that man was marked off from all other mammals by possessing features of the brain peculiar to the genus Homo. Having reached this (erroneous) opinion, Owen separated man from all other mammals in a subclass of its own. This paper was reprinted in 1863 as chapter 2 of Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature (his most influential book), but in the 1894 volume 7 in his Collected Essays the history of the Owen/Huxley debate was edited out. This extended debate, partly oral and partly in print, was a landmark in Huxley's career. It was highly important in asserting his dominance of comparative anatomy, and in the long run more influential in establishing evolution amongst biologists than was the debate with Wilberforce.
'I am Darwin's bulldog' said Huxley, and it is apt; the second half of Darwin's life was lived mainly within his family, and the younger, combative Huxley operated mainly out in the world at large. A letter from THH to Ernst Haekel (Nov 2 1871) goes "The dogs have been snapping at [Darwin's] heels too much of late."

Man and ape
Huxley was certainly not slavish in his dealings with Darwin. As shown in every biography, they had quite different and rather complementary characters. Important also, Darwin was a field naturalist, but Huxley was an anatomist, so there was a difference in their experience of nature. Lastly, Darwin's views on science were different from Huxley's views. For Darwin, natural selection was the best way to explain evolution because it explained a huge range of natural history facts and observations: it solved problems. Huxley, on the other hand, was an empiricist who trusted what he could see, and some things are not easily seen. With this in mind, one can appreciate the debate between them, Darwin writing his letters, Huxley never going quite so far as to say he thought Darwin was right.
Huxley's reservations on natural selection were of the type "until selection and breeding can be seen to give rise to varieties which are infertile with each other, natural selection cannot be proved". Huxley's resistance to Darwin's massaging and suasion is evidence of mental firmness; he may be Darwin's bulldog, but not his poodle! At least he went so far as to say that he knew of no better hypothesis.

Natural selection
In November 1864 Huxley succeeded in launching a dining club, the X Club, like-minded people working to advance the cause of science; not surprisingly, the club consisted of most of his closest friends. There were nine members, who decided at their first meeting that there should be no more. The members were: Huxley, John Tyndall, J. D. Hooker, John Lubbock (banker, biologist and cousin of Darwin), Herbert Spencer (social philosopher and sub-editor of the Economist), William Spottiswoode (mathematician and the Queen's Printer), Thomas Hirst (Professor of Physics at University College London), Edward Frankland (the new Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution) and George Busk, zoologist and palaeontologist (formerly surgeon for HMS Dreadnought). All except Spencer were Fellows of the Royal Society. There were also some quite significant satellites such as William Flower and George Rolleston, (Huxley protegées), and liberal clergyman Arthur Stanley, the Dean of Westminster. Guests such as Charles Darwin and Hermann von Helmholtz were entertained from time to time.

The X Club
When Huxley himself was young there were virtually no degrees in British universities in the biological sciences and few courses. Most biologists of his day were either self-taught, or took medical degrees. When he retired there were established chairs in biological disciplines in most universities, and a broad consensus on the curricula to be followed. Huxley was the single most influential person in this transformation.

Educational influence
In the early 1870s the Royal School of Mines moved to new quarters in South Kensington; ultimately it would become one of the constituent parts of Imperial College London. The move gave Huxley the chance to give more prominence to laboratory work in biology teaching, an idea suggested by practice in German universities. That must be part of the reason; indeed it does help to explain the stultifying nature of much school biology. But zoology as taught at all levels became far too much the product of one man.
Huxley was comfortable with comparative anatomy, at which he was the greatest master of the day. He was not an all-round naturalist like Darwin, who had shown clearly enough how to weave together detailed factual information and subtle arguments across the vast web of life. Huxley chose, in his teaching (and to some extent in his research) to take a more straightforward course, concentrating on his personal strengths.

School of Mines and Zoology
Huxley was also a major influence in the direction taken by British schools: in November 1870 he was voted onto the London School Board. Perhaps Lenin was right when he remarked (in Materialism and empirio-criticism) "In Huxley's case... agnosticism serves as a fig-leaf for materialism".

Schools and the Bible
Huxley's interest in education went still further than school and university classrooms; he made a great effort to reach interested adults of all kinds: after all, he himself was largely self-educated. There were his lecture courses for working men, many of which were published afterwards, and there was the use he made of journalism, partly to earn money but mostly to reach out to the literate public. For most of his adult life he wrote for periodicals—the Westminster Review, the Saturday Review, the Reader, the Pall Mall Gazette, Macmillan's Magazine, the Contemporary Review. Germany was still ahead in formal science education, but interested people in Victorian Britain could use their initiative and find out what was going on by reading periodicals and using the lending libraries.
The technique of printing his more popular lectures in periodicals which were sold to the general public was extremely effective. A good example was The physical basis of life, a lecture given in Edinburgh on November 8th, 1868. Its theme — that vital action is nothing more than "the result of the molecular forces of the protoplasm which displays it" — shocked the audience, though that was nothing compared to the uproar when it was published in the Fortnightly Review for February 1869. John Morley, the editor, said "No article that had appeared in any periodical for a generation had caused such a sensation". It was like "the stir that in a [former] epoch was made by Swift's Conduct of the Allies, or Burke's French Revolution" (Morley 1917 p90). The issue was reprinted seven times and protoplasm became a household word; Punch added 'Professor Protoplasm' to its other tags for him.
The topic had been stimulated by Huxley seeing the cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells, which is indeed a sensational sight. For these audiences Huxley's claim that this activity should not be explained by words such as vitality, but by the working of its constituent chemicals, was surprising and shocking. Today we would perhaps emphasise the extraordinary structural arrangement of those chemicals as the key to understanding what cells do, but little of that was known in the nineteenth century.
When the Archbishop of York thought this 'new philosophy' was based on August Comte's positivism, Huxley corrected him: "Comte's philosophy [is just] Catholicism minus Christianity" (Huxley 1893 vol 1 of Collected Essays Methods & Results 156). A later version was "[positivism is] sheer Popery with M. Comte in the chair of St Peter, and with the names of the saints changed." (lecture on The scientific aspects of positivism Huxley 1870 Lay Sermons, Addresses and Reviews p149). Huxley's dismissal of positivism damaged it so severely that Comte's ideas withered in Britain.

Adult education
The following list is given by Leonard Huxley in his biography of his father (titles somewhat shortened here). The Royal Commission is the senior investigative forum in the British constitution. A rough analysis shows that five commissions involved science and scientific education; three involved medicine and three involved fisheries. Two were directed solely to Scotland and two to Ireland. Several involve difficult ethical and legal issues. All are directed partly or wholly towards the examination of possible changes to law and/or administrative practice.
He was also elected to two general Commissions on Ireland (which at that time referred to the whole island).

1862 Trawling for herrings on the coast of Scotland.
1865–65 Sea fisheries of the United Kingdom.
1870–71 The Contagious Diseases Acts.
1870–75 Scientific instruction and the advancement of science.
1876 The practice of subjugating live animals to scientific experiments (vivisection).
1876–78 The universities of Scotland.
1881–82 The Medical Acts. [i.e. the legal framework for medicine]
1884 Trawl, net and beam trawl fishing.
1866 On the Royal College of Science for Ireland.
1868 On science and art instruction in Ireland. Royal and other Commissions
See also: Huxley family
Pencil drawing from the National Portrait Gallery.
In 1855, he married Henrietta Anne Heathorn (1825–1915), an English emigrée whom he had met in Sydney. They kept correspondence until he was able to send for her. They had five daughters and three sons:
Huxley's relationship with his relatives and children were quite genial by the standards of the day—so long as they lived their lives in an honourable manner, which some did not. After his mother, his eldest sister Lizzie was the most important person in his life until his own marriage. He remained on good terms with his own children, which is more than can be said of many Victorian fathers. This excerpt from a letter to Jessie, his eldest daughter is full of affection:
The most famous descendents in the third generation are offspring of Leonard Huxley:
Sir Julian Huxley FRS, grandson (1887–1975, son of Leonard Huxley and Julia Arnold) was a notable evolutionary biologist, who promoted the idea of humanism and was the first Director of UNESCO. His work in zoology was broader even than his grandfather: it included ethology and wildlife conservation, genetics and development as well as evolution. His two sons were both scientists of note: Anthony Julian Huxley, a botanist, and Francis Huxley, an anthropologist.
Aldous Huxley, grandson, (1891–1963, son of Leonard Huxley and Julia Arnold) was a famous author (Chrome Yellow 1921, Brave New World 1932, Eyeless in Gaza 1936, Ape and Essence 1948, The Doors of Perception 1954).
Sir Andrew Huxley OM FRS, grandson (b 1917, son of Leonard Huxley and Roselind Bruce) won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1963 jointly for work on nerve impulses. Andrew is the second Huxley to become President of the Royal Society (1980–85).

Noel Huxley (1856–1860) died aged 4.
Jessie Oriana Huxley (1856–1927), married architect Fred Waller in 1877.
Marian Huxley (1859–1887) married artist John Collier in 1879.
Leonard Huxley (1860–1933) author.
Rachel Huxley (1862–1934) married civil engineer Alfred Eckersley in 1884, he died 1895.
Henrietta (Nettie) Huxley (1863–1940), married Harold Roller, travelled Europe as a singer.
Henry Huxley (1865–1946), became a fashionable general practitioner in London.
Ethel Huxley (1866–1941) married artist John Collier (widower of sister) in 1889.
"Dearest Jess, You are a badly used young person—you are; and nothing short of that conviction would get a letter out of your still worse used Pater, the bête noir of whose existence is letter-writing. Catch me discussing the Afghan question with you, you little pepper-pot! No, not if I know it..." [goes on nevertheless to give strong opinions of the Afghans, at that time causing plenty of trouble to the Indian Empire—see Second Anglo-Afghan War] "There, you plague—ever your affec. Daddy, THH." (letter Dec 7th 1878, Huxley L 1900) Family
Biographers have sometimes noted the occurrence of mental illness in the Huxley family. His father became "sunk in worse than childish imbecility of mind" contained this comment: "The direct result of this enquiry is... to prove that the laws of heredity are as applicable to the mental faculties as to the bodily faculties".

Mental problems in the family
Darwin's ideas and Huxley's controversies gave rise to many cartoons and satires. It was the debate about man's place in nature that roused such widespread comment: cartoons are so numerous as to be almost impossible to count; Darwin's head on a monkey's body is one of the visual clichés of the age. Three or four items of especial ripeness are:
Next HUXLEY replies That OWEN he lies And garbles his Latin quotation; That his facts are not new, His mistakes not a few, Detrimental to his reputation. To twice slay the slain By dint of the Brain (Thus HUXLEY concludes his review) Is but labour in vain, unproductive of gain, And so I shall bid you "Adieu"!
Say am I a man or a brother, Or only an anthropoid ape?
Policeman X — Huxley, your Worship, I take to be a young hand, but very vicious; but Owen I have seen before. He got into trouble with an old bone man, called Mantell, who never could be off complaining as Owen prigged his bones. People did say that the old man never got over it, and Owen worritted him to death; but I don't think it was so bad as that. Hears as Owen takes the chair at a crib in Bloomsbury. I don't think it will be a harmonic meeting altogether. And Huxley hangs out in Jermyn Street.
[Tom Huxley's 'low set' included Hooker 'in the green and vegetable line' and 'Charlie Darwin, the pigeon-fancier'; Owen's 'crib in Bloomsbury' was the British Museum, of which Natural History was but one department.]
An illustration by Linley Sambourne showed Huxley and Owen studying a captured water baby. In 1892 Thomas Henry Huxley's five-year-old grandson Julian saw this engraving and wrote his grandfather a letter asking:
Dear Grandpater – Have you seen a Waterbaby? Did you put it in a bottle? Did it wonder if it could get out? Could I see it some day? – Your loving Julian.
Huxley wrote back:
My dear Julian – I could never make sure about that Water Baby. I have seen Babies in water and Babies in bottles; the Baby in the water was not in a bottle and the Baby in the bottle was not in water. My friend who wrote the story of the Water Baby was a very kind man and very clever. Perhaps he thought I could see as much in the water as he did – There are some people who see a great deal and some who see very little in the same things. When you grow up I dare say you will be one of the great-deal seers, and see things more wonderful than the Water Babies where other folks can see nothing.

Monkeyana (Punch vol 40 18th May 1861). Signed 'Gorilla', this turned out to be by Sir Philip Egerton MP, amateur naturalist, fossil fish collector and — Richard Owen's patron! and the story includes a satire on the reaction to Darwin's theory, with all the main scientific participants appearing, including Richard Owen and Huxley. Satires

Quotations
Abram, Abraham became

By will divine
Let pickled Brian's name

Be changed to Brine!

"I am Darwin's bulldog" coined by THH himself and so self-evidently apt that it was almost universally copied.
"How extremely stupid [of me] not to have thought of that" said in particular of the idea of natural selection. [versions in Life & Letters of CD and L&L of THH differ slightly as indicated]
"After all, it is as respectable to be modified ape as to be modified dirt" written in a letter to Dr Frederick Dyster 30th Jan 1859, i.e. before the publication of the Origin. [Huxley papers at Imperial College: HP 15.106]
"The Lord hath delivered him into mine hands" said to Sir Benjamin Brodie after Wilberforce's jibe in the Oxford debate. [L&L of THH Chapter 14]
"Life is too short to occupy oneself with the slaying of the slain more than once". Last of a series of exchanges when Owen repeated his claims about the Gorilla brain in a Royal Institution lecture. [Athenaeum 13 April 1861 p.498; Browne vol 2 p.159]
"The fact is that he (Richard Owen) made a prodigious blunder... and now his only chance is to be silent & let people forget the exposure!" THH to J.D. Hooker 27 April 1861 about Owen's view on human and ape brains; and of course Owen was not silent.
"Not far from the invention of fire... we must rank the invention of doubt." [Collected Essays vol 6, viii] Huxley

"I think his tone is much too vehement" [Charles Darwin in letter to Hooker about THH's Royal Institution lecture in 1854]
"Huxley gave the death-blow not only to Owen's theory of the skull but also to Owen's hitherto unchallenged prestige" Notes

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2008-03-28T00:26:00.001+09:00

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